ill 

SB    21 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

GIFT  OF" 


Class 


•&& 


)7xH  CONGRESS, 


TMEN1 

No.  4»>o. 


A    PL  A  X 


FOR 


Sr       OY  OF  MAN 


WITH  KKFKKKNCK  To 


BILLS  TO  ESTABLISH  A  LABORATORY  FOR  THE 

STl'DY  OF  THE  CRIMINAL  KUTER, 

AND   DEFECTIVE  CLASSES. 

UNIVERSITY 


WITH    A 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI)  STUDY. 


BY 


ialt.<t  iii  thf  Units'!  Matt*  P.uriiin  af  h'flni'dtiiin,  H'li.^/iiiit/tnii,  D.  ('.,  nicntlcr 
oftfit  "Sor/V//  !>' Hijjititilnt/ic  >t  I'.<tirli<>lt»jit  ill  I'm  i.<."  ttinl  author 
of  "  Abnormal  M<:-  :  nlntl — Ti/fit  "  nn'l 

"  Kjci>trun(nttil  Study  of  l.'hUdn  «." 


.TrxE  9,  1902.  — Trt'sented  V>y  Mr.  (1i..\i'i>,  icfrrrc.l  to  the  Cmninittoe  r.n  the 

Judiciary,  and  ordered  to  he  printed. 

JUNE  16,  1902. — Ordered  to  be  reprinted  with  additional  matter. 
JI-NI:  2S,  1902.  —Ordered  to  he  reprinted. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1  9  o  -i . 


GOVERNMENT  WORKS. 


ARTHUR  MxcDONALD, 
Specialist  in  the    United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ABNORMAL  MAN,  being  essays  on  Education  and  Crime,  Criminal  Sociology,  Criminal 
Hypnotism,  Alcoholism,  Insanity,  and  Genius,  with  digests  of  literature  and  a  bibliogra- 
phy. 1893.  Published  by  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Washington,  D.  C.  445  page*,  8°. 
Vd  edition,  1895. 

EDUCATION  AND  PATHO-SOCIAL  STUDIES,  including  an  investigation  of  the  murderer 
"H."  (Holmes) ;  reports  on  psychological,  criminological,  and  demographical  congresses 
in  Europe;  London  slums  and  Gen.  Booth's  Salvation  Army  movement.  Reprint  (from 
Annual  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  189:i-'94),  57  pages,  8°.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  1896. 

EXPERIMENTAL  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN,  including  Anthropometrical  and  Psycho-phys- 
ical measurements  of  Washington  school  children  ;  measurements  of  school  children  in 
United  States  and  Europe ;  description  of  instruments  of  precision  in  the  laboratory  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education  ;  child  study  in  the  United  States  ;  and  a  bibliography.  Reprint 
(from  Annual  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1897-'98),  325  pages,  8°. 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1899. 

HEARING  ON  THE  BILL  (H.  R.  14798)  to  establish  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  the  crim- 
inal, pauper,  and  defective  classes,  treating  especially  of  Criminology,  with  a  bibliography 
of  genius,  insanity,  idiocy,  alcoholism,  pauperism,  and  crime,  had  before  the  Committee 
on  the  Judiciary  of  the  U.  S.  House  of  Representatives.  309  pages,  8°.  Government 
Printing  Office.  Washington,  D.  C.,  1902. 

This  Hearing  might  be  obtained  on  application  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

SENATE  DOCUMENT  No.  400  (57th  Congress,  1st  Session)  :  A  plan  for  the  study  of  man, 
with  reference  to  bills  to  establish  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  the  criminal,  pauper,  and 
defective  classes,  treating  especially  of  Hypnotism,  with  a  bibliography  of  child  study. 
166  pages,  8°.  Government  Printing  Offi™.  Washington.  D.  C..  1902. 

This  and  the  following  document  might  be  obtained  gratis  on  application  to  any  United 
States  Senator. 

STATISTICS  OF  CRIME,  SUICIDE  AND  INSANITY  and  other  forms  of  abnormality  in 
different  countries  of  the  world,  in  connection  with  bills  to  establish  a  laboratory,  etc. 
Senate  Document  No.  11,  57th  Congress,  2d  Session,  8°.  Government  Printing  Office. 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1903. 


57TH  CONGRESS,  )  SENATE.  j  DOCUMENT 

.fctf  Session.  (No.  400. 


A  PLAN 


FOR 


THE  STUDY  OF  MAN, 


WITH  REFERENCE  TO 


BILLS  TO  ESTABLISH  A  LABORATORY  FOR  THE 

STUDY  OF  THE  CRIMINAL,  PAUPER, 

AND  DEFECTIVE  CLASSES, 


WITH  A 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY. 


BY 


ARTHUR  MACDONALD, 

n  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.,  member 
of  the  "  Socictc  I?  Hypnologie  et  Psychologic  de  Paris,"  and  author 
of  "  Abnormal  Man,"  "  Le  C'rimincl — Tifjic"  and 
"  Experimental  Study  of  Children." 


JUNE  9,  1902.— Presented  by  Mr.  CLAPP,  referred  to  the  Committee  on  the 

Judiciary,  and  ordered  to  he  printed. 

JUNE  16,  1902.— Ordered  to  he  reprinted  with  additional  matter. 
JUNE  28,  1902.— Ordered  to  he  reprinted. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1902. 


i 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Nature  of  bills ./*. 4 

Study  of  man , 5-11 

The  study  of  children 11-22 

Instruments  of  precision 22-28 

Preliminary  training  for  study  in  a  psycho-physical  laboratory 28-30 

Susceptibility  to  disease  and  physical  development  in  college  women 30-32 

Measurements  of  Chattanooga  children 33-37 

Measurements  of  girls  in  private  schools  and  of  university  students 37-41 

Types  of  children  in  Germany 41-44 

Growth  and  sociological  conditions 44-47 

Hypnotism 47-54 

Traumatic  hypnotism  (case  of) 54-55 

Surgical  operations  during  hypnotic  sleep 55--S7 

The  power  of  suggestion 57-62 

Study  of  the  hypnotism  state 62-64 

Pedagogic  hypnotism 64-70 

Some  recent  results  from  the  study  of  man 70-76 

CRIMINOLOGY. 

Scientific  method 76 

Prison  discipline 77 

Application  of  scientific  method 78-80 

Instruction  in  criminology 81 

Criminals  not  so  abnormal 81 

Crime  not  a  disease. 81 

Freedom  of  criminals'  will 82 

Physiology  of  the  criminal's  brain 83 

Measurements  of  emotion  83 

Moral  obtuseness 84 

Bertillon  system  of  measurement 85 

Criminal  aristocracy,  or  the  Mafia 85-88 

Criminal  suggestion 88-93 

Education  and  crime 93-94 

Teaching  of  practical  morality 95-100 

Conclusions  as  to  criminal  man 100 

Alcoholism 100-102 

Total  abstinence 102 

Social  pathology  and  education 103 

Crime  and  its  punishment 103-108 

Pure  murder  (case  of) 108-117 

Man  from  scientific  point  of  view 117 

Bibliography  of  child  study 117-151 

More  recent  literature  on  child  study 152, 153 

Adolescence 153 

Child  psychology 154-157 

Appendix 159-162 

Names  of  Senators  and  Representatives  favoring  plan 159 

Opinions  of  scientific  journals 159, 160 

Indorsements  of  societies,  etc 160 

Specialists  writing  letters  in  favor  of  laboratory,  etc 161, 162 


[Many  of  the  points  briefly  referred  to  in  this  document  are  more  fuUy  considered  in  a 
hearing  on  the  bill  (H.  R.  14798}  to  establish  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  the  criminal, 
pauper,  and  defective  classes,  had  by  the  writer  before  the  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  and 
published  by  the  order  of  the  committee.'] 

NATURE  OF  BILLS. 

Bills,  or  amendments,  to  establish  a  laboratory  to  study  the  crimi- 
nal, pauper,  and  defective  classes  have  been  introduced  in  Congress 
by  Senators  Hoar,  Nelson,  Bacon,  McComas,  Quay,  Penrose,  Money, 
and  Pettigrew,  and  by  Representatives  Ray  (New  York)  and  Henry 
(Connecticut). 

The  general  purpose  of  these  bills  is  a  sociologic  and  scientific  study 
of  the  abnormal  classes,  it  being  understood  that  such  study  is  a 
development  of  work  already  begun  under  the  Federal  Government. 

The  term  "  laboratory  "  is  employed  in  the  broadest  sense,  not  only 
including  the  use  of  instruments  of  precision,  but  the  gathering  of 
sociological  data,  especially  as  found  in  institutions  for  the  abnormal 
classes;  also  investigations  of  anarchistic  criminals,  mob  influence,  and 
like  phenomena;  that  especially  the  causes  of  social  evils  shall  be  sought 
out,  with  a  view  to  lessening  or  preventing  them;  that  these  results 
and  those  of  similar  work  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

At  present  our  State  institutions  gather  more  or  less  data  annually, 
but  little  use  is  made  of  them.  It  is  proposed  to  combine  and  sum- 
marize these  results,  to  encourage  uniformity  of  method  in  collecting 
data,  making  the  work  more  useful  to  the  country  at  large. 


STUDY  OF  MAN. 


_The  greatest  of  all  studies  is  that  of  man  himself  as  he  is  to-day.  A 
Scientific  investigation  of  man  must  be  based  primarily  upon  the  indi- 
vidual, who  is  the  unit  of  the  social  organism. 

If  we  are  ever  to  have  sufficient  definite  knowledge  of  living  human 
beings  that  may  become  a  science,  it  can  only  be  done  by  the  careful 
study  of  large  numbers  of  individuals.  The  more  thorough  the  study 
and  the  larger  the  number  the  more  useful  such  investigation  can  be 
made  to  society. 

As  in  machinery  we  must  first  repair  the  little  wheels  out  of  gear, 
so  in  society  we  must  first  study  the  criminal,  crank,  insane,  inebriate, 
or  pauper  who  can  seriously  injure  both  individual  and  community. 
Thus  a  worthless  crank,  by  killing  a  prominent  citizen,  can  paralyze 
the  community.  The  injury  from  such  action  is  often  beyond  calcula- 
tion. Our  Government  pays  out  millions  to  catch,  try,  and  care  for 
criminals,  but  gives  very  little  to  study  the  causes  that  lead  to  crime. 

The  study  of  man,  to  be  of  most  utility,  must  be  directed  first  to 
the  causes  of  crime,  pauperism,  alcoholism,  and  other  forms  of  abnor- 
mality. To  do  this  the  individuals  themselves  must  be  studied.  As 
the  seeds  of  evil  are  usually  sown  in  childhood  and  youth,  it  is  here 
that  all  investigation  should  commence,  for  there  is  little  hope  of 
making  the  world  better  if  we  do  not  seek  the  causes  of  social  evils  at 
their  beginnings. 

The  most  rigid  and  best  method  of  study  of  both  children  and  adults 
is  that  of  the  laboratory,  with  instruments  of  precision  in  connection 
with  sociological  data.  Such  inquiry  consists  in  gathering  sociological, 
pathological,  and  abnormal  data  as  found  in  children,  in  criminal, 
pauper,  and  defective  classes,  and  in  hospitals.  Such  experiments  or 
measurements  should  be  made  as  are  of  interest  not  only  to  sociologists, 
psycho-physicists,  and  anthropologists,  but  also  to  physiologists  and 
pathologists. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  conduct  such  investigations  under  our  Gov- 
ernment by  the  establishment  of  a  laboratory;  for  to  gather  a  large 
number  of  such  data  concerning  a  large  number  of  individuals  and  to 
compute,  tabulate,  and  publish  the  results  could  not  easily  be  under- 
taken by  an  individual  or  by  a  university  because  of  the  expense 
involved. 

Since  the  field  is  necessarily  very  large,  the  investigation  should  be 
in  those  parts  of  it  which  promise  to  be  productive  of  most  practical 
results  in  the  way  of  amelioration  or  prevention  of  social  evils. 


6  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

The  following  is  a  measurement  blank  being  used  by  the  author  in 
the  study  of  children  :a 


No. 

Name,  --  ;  date,  --  ;  school  grade,  -  ;  name  of  observer, 


sex,  -  ;  date  of  birth,  -  ;  age  in  years  and  months,  -  ;  color  of  hair, 
-  ;  of  eyes,  -  ;  of  skin,  -  ;  first  born,  -  ;  second  born,  -  ; 
later  born,  -  . 

ANTHROPOMETRICAL. 

Weight,  —  -^  —  ;   lung  capacity,  -  ;  depth  of  chest,  -  ;  width  of  chest, 
circumference  of  chest,   -  ;    height,   -  ;    sitting  height, 


strength  of  lift, ;  of  arms,  ;  of  right-hand  grasp,  ;  of  left-hand 

grasp, ;  total  strength, ;   is  the  subject  left-handed? ;  maximum 

length  of  head,  ;   maximum  width  of  head, ;  cephalic  index, ; 

distance  between  zygomatic  arches, ;  between  external  edges  of  orbits, ; 

between  corners  of  eyes,  ;   length  of  nose,  ;   width  of  nose, ; 

height  of  nose, ;  nasal  index, ;  length  of  ears,  right, ;  left, ; 

length  of  hands,  right, ;   left, ;   width  of  mouth, ;  thickness  of 

lips, . 

PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL. 

Least  sensibility  to  locality,  right  wrist, ;  left  wrist, ;  least  sensibility 

to  heat,  right  wrist,  ;  left  wrist, ;  least  sensibility  to  contact  on  the  skin, 

— ;  least  sensibility  to  pain  by  pressure  of  two  points, ;  least  sensibility  to 

pain  by  pressure,  right  temporal  muscle, ;  left  temporal  muscle, ;  least 

sensibility  to  smell,  right  nostril, ;   left  nostril,  ;   least  sensibility  of 

muscle  sense  to  weight,  right  hand,  ;    left  hand,  ;   measurement  of 

effects:  of  fatigue, ;  of  emotion, ;  pulse, ;  respiration, . 

SOCIOLOGICAL. 

Nationality  of  father, ;  nationality  of  mother, ;  nationality  of  grand- 
father, father's  side,  ;  mother's  side,  ;  nationality  of  grandmother, 

father's  side, ;  mother's  side, ;  occupation  of  parents, ;  education 

of  parents, . 

ABILITIES   IN   STUDIES. 

% 

Bright,  dull,  or  average,  in  general, ;  in  arithmetic, ;  algebra, ; 

grammar, ;  drawing, ;  geography, ;  history, ,  music, ; 

reading,  ;  spelling,  ;  penmanship,  ;  German, ;  French, 

;  Latin,  ;  Greek,  ;  geometry,  ;  physics, ;  science, 

;  manual  labor, ;  etc., . 

(Answer  after  each  study  and  for  other  studies  not  mentioned.  When  in  doubt 
as  to  brightness  or  dullness,  mark  person  average. ) 

ABNORMAL   OR   PATHOLOGICAL. 

If  abnormal  or  peculiar,  name  in  what  way, ;  unruly, ;  sickly, ; 

defects  in  speech, ;  defects  in  sight, ;  defects  in  hearing, . 

Palate,  ;    aural  asymmetry,  ;    cephalic,  ;   palpebral  fissures, 

;  frontals, ;  expression, ;  hand  balance, ;  nutrition, 


pigmentation, ;   ptosis, ;   rachitism,  ;  epilepsy,  ;  lordosis, 

;  kyphosis, ;  scoliosis, ;  other  defects, ;  diseases  had, . 

SUGGESTIONS  AS   TO   FURTHER   STUDIES. 

It  would  be  important  to  find  what  physical  and  mental  characteris- 
tics are  common  to  criminal  children,  and  whether  such  characteristics 

aSee  Experimental  Study  of  Children  (by  writer),  reprint  from  Report  of  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1897-98. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  7 

are  due  more  to  the  child's  nature  or  more  to  his  environment.  Only 
thorough  and  patient  study  of  large  numbers  of  children  can  answer 
such  questions;  theory  and  speculation  based  on  a  few  facts  can  not, 
but  they  may  accomplish  good  in  calling  attention  to  the  subject.  It 
is  generally  believed,  but  not  proved,  that  crime  is  mostly  due  to  sur- 
roundings; if  this  can  be  determined,  then  there  m  great  hope  of  lessen- 
ing it,  for  it  is  much  easier  to  change  the  surroundings  of  a  child  than 
to  change  its  nature. 

INVESTIGATION   OF   SCHOOL   CHILDREN. 

Much  study  has  been  devoted  to  children  in  our  public  schools;  mis- 
takes have  doubtless  been  made  by  those  with  more  enthusiasm  than 
training.  But  this  is  the  case  with  all  new  lines  of  inquiry.  Yet 
there  are  very  practical  matters  we  should  know  as  to  our  schools. 
To  establish  the  measure  of  the  work  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
pupil  is  fundamental  to  health,  for  overtaxing  the  powers  of  the  young 
can  leave  its  mark  for  life: 

What  is  the  maximum  work  suitable  to  a  child  in  the  different 
periods  of  development  in  its  school  life?  And  can  this  maximum  be 
injurious  at  times,  as  at  puberty,  when  all  the  vital  force  may  be 
required  for  growth?  To  answer  such  practical  questions  we  must 
know  the  physiology  of  normal  growth,  its  rate  of  increase  or  decrease, 
and  what  influences  cause  such  increase  or  decrease/ 

UNRULY   AND   REFORMATORY  CHILDREN. 

It  would  be  desirable  to  find  what  physical  and  mental  traits  are 
common  to  unruly  school  children  and  children  in  reformatories.  If 
there  is  nothing  peculiar  as  compared  with  children  in  general,  this  is 
important  to  know.  In  like  manner  it  would  be  interesting  to  know 
what  characteristics,  if  any,  are  in  common  between  the  feeble-minded 
in  our  institutions  and  dull  children  in  our  schools.  These  and  similar 
inquiries,  when  made  with  care  and  discretion,  might  enable  us  to  fore- 
see with  some  probability  the  special  dangers  that  this  and  that  child 
may  be  subject  to,  and  thus  to  protect  many  children  from  temptations 
and  conditions  that  otherwise  might  ruin  them. 

IMPORTANCE   OF  LARGE   NUMBERS. 

Where  the  number  of  persons  studied  is  large,  many  subdivisions 
can  be  made,  and  in  this  way  some  of  the  most  important,  yet  some- 
times unexpected,  results  are  reached.  It  would  be  well  to  know  the 
difference,  not  only  between  children  of  the  professional,  mercantile, 
and  laboring  classes,  but  between  those  with  American  parents  and 
foreign  parents.  Then,  if  the  numbers  were  large  enough  to  admit 
further*  subdivisions,  we  might  find  the  difference  between  children 
whose  father  is  American  but  mother  foreign  born  and  those  whose 
mother  is  American  and  father  foreign  born.  In  all  such  questions, 
if  there  is  no  striking  difference  it  is  important  to  know  it.  Thus  the 
influence  of  marriage  between  different  races  or  nationalities  upon  the 
offspring  might  be  determined  more  definitely. 

*For  further  discussion  see  "Experimental  Study  of  Children"  (by  writer),  reprint 
from  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1897-98,  Washington,  D.  C. 


8  A    PLAN    FOE    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

If  it  should  be  found,  for  instance,  from  the  comparison  of  large 
numbers,  where  all  possibility  of  accident  or  coincidence  is  eliminated, 
that  the  difference  between  certain  classes  of  children,  such  as  the 
criminal,  from  children  in  general  is  quite  marked,  the  question  would 
arise  whether  such  difference  is  due  mainly  to  heredity  or  to  unfavor- 
able surroundings.  In  cases  where  the  crime  or  defect  is  due  to 
heredity  the  treatment  would  be  quite  different  from  those  in  which 
environment  is  the  cause. 

QUESTION   AS   TO   UTILITY. 

But,  it  may  be  asked,  what  as  to  the  utility  of  studying  such  ques- 
tions ?  We  think  it  is  not  only  useful,  but  there  is  great  need  of  such 
investigation.  We  should  like  to  inquire,  for  instance,  as  to  the  utility 
of  studying  rocks  and  plants,  arranging  them,  making  chemical 
analyses  of  them,  etc.,  if  it  is  not  to  give  a  deeper  knowledge  of  them 
and  thereby  learn  more  about  our  planet  ?  So  the  patient  and  extended 
study  of  man,  especially  children,  is  to  gain  more  definite  knowledge 
about  him  and  a  deeper  insight  into  his  nature.  The  time  has  cer- 
tainly come  when  man  as  he  is  should  be  studied  as  much  as  nature. 

Much  money  has  been  given  and  great  interest  manifested  for  the 
discovery  of  new  chemical  elements  or  the  search  for  unknown  planets. 
We  erect  statues  and  found  art  galleries  at  great  expense.  These 
things  may  not  all  be  immediately  useful.  Indeed,  the  highest  art 
spurns  even  the  idea  of  utility;  and  yet  when  it  is  proposed  to  study 
a  child  thoroughly  to  gain  an  insight  into  its  nature,  to  find  the 
causes  of  its  defects,  so  that  we  may  protect  it  and  help  it  to  become 
a  good  citizen,  the  utilitarian  cry  is  heard.  The  time  has  come  when 
it  is  important  to  study  a  child  with  as  much  exactness  as  we  investi- 
gate the  chemical  elements  of  a  stone  or  measure  the  mountains  on 
the  moon. 

If  facts  about  children,  whether  immediately  useful  or  not,  are  not 
important,  we  desire  to  ask  what  is  important  in  life  ? 

[From  editorial  in  The  American  Lawyer,  New  York.] 
SCIENTIFIC   STUDY   OF   THE   CRIMINAL   AND   DEFECTIVE   CLASSES. 

An  effort  is  being  made  to  establish  a  laboratory  in  the  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior, at  Washington,  for  the  practical  application  of  physiological  psychology  to 
sociological  and  abnormal  or  pathological  data,  especially  as  found  in  institutions  for 
the  criminal,  pauper,  and  defective  classes,  and  in  hospitals,  and  also  as  may  be 
observed  in  schools  and  other  institutions.  The  defect  in  our  present  criminal  law 
is,  as  we  have  before  remarked,  that  it  regards  the  crime  and  not  the  criminal.  It 
presupposes  that  all  mankind  possess  an  equal  power  of  resistance  to  antisocial  ten- 
dencies. It  practically  lays  down  as  an  axiom  that  the  child  born  of  criminal 
parents,  brought  up  in  an  environment  of  crime,  is,  until  he  has  actually  come  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  magistrate's  court,  as  equally  desirable  a  citizen  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  as  he  who  has  been  reared  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  law  abiding. 
Until  an  offense  has  been  committed  the  law  does  not  recognize  the  offender.  For 
it  the  prospective  criminal  does  not  exist.  Unfortunately,  there  are  some  beings 
who  are  moral  imbeciles.  To  confine  our  efforts  to  punishing  crime  when  committed, 
rather  than  to  preventing  its  commission,  is  like  the  proverbial  locking  of  barn  after 
stealing  of  horse.  Nothing  has  been  done  by  Government  as  yet  to  treat  the  matter 
scientifically;  and  when  it  is  considered  that $600, 000, 000  is  the  annual  tribute  which 
statisticians  assure  us  society  pays  to  crime,  and  that  the  United  States  has  the  high- 
e&t  murder  rate  of  any  civilized  country  in  the  world,  one  is  almost  tempted  to  long 
for  a  return  to  the  condition  of  things  when  160  offenses  were  punishable  by  death, 
though  it  be  conceded  that  the  death  penalty  is  one  of  the  slightest  deterrents  to 
crime.  The  promoters  of  the  measure  have  our  best  wishes. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  9 

[From  editorial  in  the  Central  Law  Journal,  St.  Louis,  Mo.] 

We  earnestly  share  the  sentiments  and  heartily  indorse  the  efforts  to  induce  the 
National  Government  to  establish  a  psycho-physical  laboratory  for  the  study  of  crim- 
inology and  kindred  subjects.  Knowledge  is  power — a  trite  saying,  but  one  which 
has  peculiar  significance  in  this  connection.  One  of  the  supremest  objects  of  every 
government  is  absolute  power  within  itself  to  suppress  crime.  The  severest  penalties 
of  law  have  been  futile  to  deter  the  criminal  inflamed  by  passionate  anger  or  a  burn- 
ing lust  for  gold.  The  drunkard,  the  pauper,  and  the  criminal  are  creatures  of  cir- 
cumstance, education,  and  heredity,  and  the  science  that  can  tell  us  under  what 
conditions  these  forces  act  in  evolving  the  abnormal  man  would  necessarily  put  into 
our  hands  the  secret  of  how  to  change  those  conditions.  We  especially  commend 
the  resolution  to  the  favorable  attention  of  bar  associations  all  over  the  country. 

UNIVERSITY   LABORATORIES. 

While  the  initiative  in  such  studies  caine  from  Europe,  it  is  in  our 
country  that  it  has  developed  to  its  greatest  extent. 

A  large  number  of  laboratories  have  been  established,  most  of  which 
are  in  the  universities.  But  the  plan  of  these  laboratories  is  mainly 
for  pedagogical  purposes.  The  research  work  is  generally  done  by 
students  desiring  to  prepare  theses  for  their  doctorates.  While  many 
of  these  are  very  valuable,  a  university  could  hardly  extend  such  work 
to  large  numbers  of  individuals,  for  to  gather  the  facts,  compute  and 
tabulate  the  results,  would  involve  clerical  duties  and  other  work  not 
undertaken  by  universities.  Such  work  in  the  university  is  generally 
confined  to  small  numbers  of  persons,  who  are  a  special  class,  so  that 
it  is  doubtful  whether  conclusions  obtained  can  always  be  applied  to 
people  in  general. 

The  main  object  of  a  university  is  to  prepare  men  for  work,  not  to 
carry  on  their  work. 

There  is  need,  then,  for  a  laboratory  different  from  those  in  our 
universities — that  is,  one  not  pedagogical,  but  sociological  and  practi- 
cal, and  of  more  utility  to  society  directly. 

The  purpose  of  such  a  laboratory  is  to  collect  sociological,  patho- 
logical, and  abnormal  data  as  found  especially  in  children  and  in  the 
criminal,  pauper,  and  defective  classes,  and  in  hospitals;  to  gather 
more  special  data  with  instruments  of  precision,  and  also  to  collect  and 
publish  the  results  of  similar  work  in  this  country  and  Europe. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  the  time  is  not  ripe  for  such  work  on  a  large 
scale.  This  may  be  true  of  much  of  the  finer  experimental  work 
carried  on  in  our  universities,  some  of  which  is  an  experiment  with 
experiments. 

Conclusions  depending  on  small  numbers  are  useful  and  instructive, 
but  if  they  are  to  carry  weight  they  must  be  based  upon  numerous 
individuals  of  all  classes. 

But  the  psycho-physical  study  is  not  all  the  work.  Of  greater 
importance  are  the  sociological  investigations  involved,  including  the 
gathering  of  jurisprudential  and  medical  data.  In  new  work  the  field 
is  always  too  large,  and  therefore  it  would  be  imperative  at  first  to 
study  in  those  parts  only  which  will  bring  results  most  useful  to  society. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   THE   STUDY    OF   CHILDREN. 

While  the  study  of  children  has  been  gradually  growing  in  impor- 
tance and  interest,  it  is  only  as  yet  at  its  beginning.  We  do  not  know 
whether  there  are  mental  and  physical  characteristics  by  which  we 


10  A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

might  distinguish  criminal  children  from  other  children.  It  is  difficult 
to  tell  whether  such  characteristics  come  more  from  the  child's  nature 
or  more  from  its  surroundings.  If  crime  is  mostly  due  to  the  environ- 
ment, as  is  generally  believed,  and  if  this  could  be  determined  in  the 
case  of  each  child,  there  would  be  much  more  probability  of  lessening 
crime,  for  it  is  possible  to  change  the  child's  surroundings,  but  not  its 
nature. 

If  we  could  know  whether  there  were  mental  and  physical  charac- 
teristics peculiar  to  unruly  children  in  school  and,  criminal  children  in 
reformatories,  or  to  dull  school  pupils  and  feeble-minded  children, 
characteristics  distinguishing  such  children  from  the  normal  child,  we 
might  foresee  special  dangers  to  these  children,  and  thus  protect  many 
from  temptations  and  conditions  that  otherwise  would  ruin  them. 
Such  knowledge  as  this  can  only  be  gained  by  a  patient  scientific  study 
of  large  numbers  of  children  of  all  classes. a 

There  has  been  much  investigation  of  school  children,  but  as  the 
subject  is  in  its  experimental  stage  and  methods  are  new,  criticism  has 
naturally  been  aroused.  This  is  the  history  of  all  new  lines  of  inquiry 
that  take  up  the  humanities.  Some  imagine  that  the  children  might 
be  harmed  by  instruments  used  upon  them  or  their  rights  interfered 
with,  but  nothing  could  be  farther  from  the  truth.  The  study  of 
children  is  simply  to  gain  knowledge  about  them,  and  if  knowledge  is 
power,  it  will  be  power  for  their  good. 

OPPOSITION   TO   PSYCHO-PHYSICAL   RESEARCH. 

Rigid  methods  of  research,  which  have  been  confined  mostly  to  the 
sciences,  should  be  applied  to  man.  It  is  only  recently  that  more 
exact  methods  have  been  used  in  the  investigation  of  the  mind.  Oppo- 
sition and  ridicule  came  not  only  from  the  ultra-conservative  people, 
who  are  usually  opposed  to  all  new  things,  but  from  extreme  doctrin- 
aires. The  day  has  come  when  opinion,  theory,  or  speculation  must 
give  way  to  first-hand  knowledge.  The  value  of  opinion  depends  upon 
such  knowledge,  an  ounce  of  which  is  worth  a  pound  of  theory.  Much 
of  this  opposition  also  may  be  due  to  the  mistaken  idea  that  psycho- 
physical  studies  tend  to  materialism  or  are  liable  to  undermine  moral- 
ity and  religion,  but  such  unfounded  opposition  is  gradually  ceasing, 
and  where  it  does  exist  it  is  due  either  to  ignorance  or  to  mistakes 
that  may  often  occur  in  the  introduction  of  new  methods. 

HISTORICAL   METHOD. 

Man  has  been  studied  in  a  statistical  way  as  to  his  acts  and  thoughts 
in  the  past;  but  this  method  is  necessarily  inexact  and  uncertain, 
because. the  events  are  so  far  removed  in  time.  It  is  not  only  difficult 
to  understand  the  past  in  which  we  did  not  live,  but  also  to  distinguish 
between  facts,  inferences,  and  opinions  as  recorded  by  writers,  who 
often  had  some  special  point  of  view  and  omitted  important  data.  For 
this  reason  alone  a  science  of  history  may  be  impossible. 

NORMAL  MAN  SHOULD  BE  STUDIED. 

Students  of  anthropology  have  confined  their  attention  largely  to 
uncivilized  and  prehistoric  man,  and  consequently  there  is  very  little 
knowledge  of  modern  civilized  man,  as  compared  with  his  less  worthy 


A   PLAN   FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  11 

predecessors  or  contemporaries.  The  men  who  have  begun  lately  to 
study  modern  man  have  given  the  abnormal  types,  such  as  criminals, 
the  insane,  inebriates,  paupers,  etc. ,  the  advantage  of  their  investiga- 
tions. It  is  time  that  similar  investigations  should  be  made  upon 
average  normal  men,  who  are  the  foundation  of  every  community. 

Also,  men  of  talent,  great  talent  or  genius,a  might  be  studied;  for  if 
it  is  important  to  study  the  criminal  in  order  to  find  the  causes  of 
crime,  and  thereby  prevent  or  lessen  it,  it  is  perhaps  needful  to  investi- 
gate the  man  of  talent  or  genius  in  order  to  learn  those  conditions  and 
characteristics  that  lead  to  success  in  life.b 

Why  is  it  that  there  is  so  little  definite  knowledge  about  modern 
man  ?  It  is  mainly  because  he  has  been  studied  so  little.  The  first 
case  in  the  history  of  this  world  of  a  thorough  scientific  study  of  a 
human  being  is  that  made  on  Zolaa  in  1897  by  a  number  of  French 
specialists.  Such  a  statement  as  this  may  seem  hazardous,  but  it  is 
literally  true. 

THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN/ 

has  been  said  the  most  important  study  of  man  is  man.  It  may 
be  added,  the  most  important  period  of  man's  life  to  investigate  is 
childhood.  Children  are  easy  to  approach,  their  natures  are  open, 
and  if  anything  wrong  is  found  it  may  be  remedied  much  better  than 
later  in  life.  J 

Children  can  be  studied  more  scientifically  than  adults;  they  are 
nearer  to  nature  and  have  been  less  influenced  by  the  evils  of  the 
world. 

While  the  study  of  children  received  its  first  impulse  from  Europe, 
it  is  in  America  that  it  has  been  developed  to  the  greatest  extent.  In 
many  of  our  cities  school  children  have  been  measured  both  physically 
and  mentally,  and  child-study  associations  have  been  formed  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  While  Europe  regards  us  as  a  young  nation 
and  accords  us  little  in  intellectual  and  scientific  development,  it  is 
nevertheless  probable  that  the  study  of  children  will  first  become  a 
science  in  our  country. 

NATURAL   CRITICISMS. 

There  have  been  some  criticisms  of  the  study  of  children,  but  this 
always  occurs  in  any  new  line  of  work,  where  mistakes  are  liable  to  be 
made,  no  matter  how  worthy  the  work  may  be.  Such  mistakes  are 
usually  due  either  to  lack  of  experience  or  enthusiasm.  But  there  can 
be  no  success  in  anything  new  without  enthusiasm.  Honest  criticism 
should  be  welcomed  in  all  lines  of  inquiry,  for  it  serves  as  a  rudder 
and  may  save  the  investigation  from  disaster.  There  can  be  no 
progress  without  pain. 

It  would  be  premature  to  make  conclusions  as  to  the  benefit  of  some 
of  the  investigations  in  the  domain  of  child  study.  It  is  a  wise  person 
who  could  tell  in  advance,  in  new  lines  of  work,  what  may  be  valuable 
and  what  may  not.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  being  too  practical  in  our 

aFor  consideration  of  genius  and  insanity,  see  Hearing,  had  by  writer,  before 
House  Committee  on  the  Judiciary,  on  bill  to  establish  laboratory,  etc. 

b Results  are  given  in  article  on  Zola  (by  writer),  reprint  (1901),  from  "Open 
Court,"  Chicago. 

c  Article  by  writer  in  Everybody's  Magazine  for  June,  1901. 


12 


A    PLAN    FOE   THE    STUDY   OF   MAN. 


requirements  of  experimental  work.  Sometimes  it  is  expected  that 
the  results  of  an  investigation  should  be  for  immediate  use.  But  this 
commercial  or  utilitarian  spirit  does  not  yield  the  best  results,  though 
it  may  bring  quick  returns.  In  early  stages  of  all  inquiries  much  may 
be  done  that  subsequently  is  seen  to  have  been  unnecessary,  for  the 
real  meaning  of  any  new  truth  can  not  always  be  known  until  the  dis- 
covery of  other  truths  has  been  made.  Many  details  in  scientific 
research  often  make  us  impatient,  but  in  all  investigations  it  is  better 
to  have  too  many  data  than  too  few.  A  laboratory  inquiry  may  be 
pursued  a  very  long  time  and  the  result  of  all  the  labor  be  stated  in 
one  sentence,  or  the  conclusion  may  be  only  negative;  but  this  is  no 
reason  that  the  investigation  should  not  have  been  undertaken,  for  it 
is  often  important  to  know  that  a  thing  is  not  true,  and  sometimes  it 
is  the  only  way  to  learn  what  methods  and  material  to  avoid.  These 
and  like  objections  would  have  applied  to  all  sciences  in  their  early 
stages.  A  child  necessarily  totters  and  falls  before  it  learns  to  walk. 
It  will  not  be  long  before  the  study  of  children  will  bt  considered  one 
of  the  most  necessary  and  important  movements  for  the  good  of 
mankind. 

WASHINGTON   CHILDREN. 

To  illustrate  some  recent  lines  of  work,  we  give  a  table  and  number 
of  conclusions  based  upon  a  study  of  Washington  school  children. 

The  table  shows  results  of  an  investigation  of  20,000  children  by  the 
writer,  and  indicates  some  relations  between  mental  ability,  sex, 
nationality,  sociological  condition,  abnormalities,  and  defects  as 
reported  by  the  teachers.  It  is  evident  that  had  specialists  examined 
the  pupils  the  per  cent  of  abnormalities  and  defects  would  have  been 
much  greater.  But  the  purpose  was  to  give  simply  the  more  obvious 
peculiarities  and  defects  which  any  intelligent  teacher  by  constant 
contact  with  a  pupil  would  note. 

Mental  ability  in  relation  to  sex,  nationality,  sociological  conditions,  abnormalities,  and 
defects  of  20,000  Washington  school  children,  as  reported  by  the  teachers. 


Bright. 

Dull. 

Aver- 
age. 

Sickly. 

Ner- 
vous. 

Defects  in  — 

Con- 
vul- 
sions. 

Lazy. 

Un- 
ruly. 

P.  ct. 
5.47 
.25 
5.fi3 
.11 
4.44 
.96 

5.60 

.39 
4.42 
.19 
7.05 
.03 

Eye- 
sight. 

Hear- 
ing. 

Speech. 

All  boys  

P.ct. 
39 
39 
38 
40 
34 
32 

32 

38 
31 
32 
44 

48  . 

P.ct. 
16 
11 

15 
9 
17 
16 

16 

14 
17 
16 
11 

P.  ct. 
45 
50 
47 
51 
49 
52 

52 

48 
52 
52 
45 
52 

P.ct. 
5.25 

4.78 
5.48 
5.32 
2.13 
2.60 

7.17 

3.53 
3.72 
6.47 
7.37 
4.66 

P.ct. 
1.20 
.67 
1.28 
.80 
.19 
.19 

1.79 

.29 
.51 
.86 
2.03 
.83 

P.  ct. 
1.21 

1.27 
1.36 
1.52 
.58 
.38 

1.57 

.59 
.77 
1.46 
1.97 
1.73 

P.ct. 
.67 
.36 
.68 
.40 
.19 
.20 

1.12 

.20 
.44 
.57 
.94 

.27 

P.  ct. 
1.11 

.28 
1.11 
.34 

.87 

P.  ct. 
.06 
.01 
.08 
.02 

P.  ct. 
1.33 
.22 
1.48 
.23 
.58 
.10 

1.23 

.29 
1.09 
.19 
1.91 

.29 

All  girls 

Boys,  American  parentage 
Girls,  American  parentage 
Boys,  foreign  parentage.  . 
Girls,  foreign  parentage.  . 
Boys,  American  and  for 
eign  parentage 

1.34 

.20 

.77 
.57 
1.49 
.14 

"."64" 

"."is" 

.04 

Girls,  American  and  for 
eign  parentage  
Boys,  laboring  classes  ...  . 
Girls,  laboring  classes  ...  . 
Boys,  nonlaboring  classes  . 
Girls,  nonlaboring  classes  . 

As  the  citizens  of  Washington  come  from  all  parts  of  the  Union, 
the  conclusions  may  have  more  general  application  to  America  as  a 
whole. 

Beginning  with  the  first  three  columns  of  the  table,  we  will  mention 
a  few  points. 


A   PLAN   FOR   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN.  13 

MENTAL   ABILITY. 

All  boys  and  girls  show  the  same  percentage  of  brightness,  but  the 
girls  have  five  per  cent  less  dullness,  and  so  in  general  may  be  said  to 
be  a  little  brighter  than  the  boys,  but  this  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
girls  reach  maturity  sooner  than  boys. 

Children  (boys  and  girls)  of  American  parentage  are  brighter  than 
both  children  of  foreign  parentage  arid  children  of  foreign  and  Ameri- 
can parentage.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  a  mixture  of  nationalities 
is  not  always  advantageous  in  its  effect  upon  the  offspring. 

Children  of  the  nonlaboring  (professional  and  mercantile)  classes  are 
superior  to  those  of  the  laboring  classes,  indicating  that  the  advantages 
of  good  social  conditions  are  favorable  to  mental  brightness. 

SICKLINESS  AND   NERVOUSNESS. 

Boys  of  nonlaboring  classes  show  a  much  higher  per  cent  of  sickli- 
ness  and  nervousness  than  boys  of  the  laboring  classes,  indicating  that 
easier  social  surroundings  are  not  always  conducive  to  health. 

LAZINESS   AND   UNRULINESS. 

While  most  all  children,  boys  especially,  are  lazy  at  times,  there 
are  nevertheless  a  number  of  children  who  seem  to  be  chronically  lazy. 
From  the  table  we  see  that  the  dull  boys  have  the  highest  per  cent  of 
laziness  (2.97).  It  may  be  true  also  that  their  indolence  is  one  of  the 
causes  of  this  dullness.  Comparing  all  boys  and  girls,  the  boys  (1.33) 
will  be  seen  to  be  much  more  lazy  than  the  girls  (0.22). 

While,  of  course,  there  is  no  standard  of  laziness,  yet  there  are 
certain  children  whose  excessive  laziness  is  apparent  to  every  teacher. 
This  also  is  true  in  regard  to  unruly  children.  As  we  might  expect, 
the  boys  (5.47)  are  very  much  more  unruly  than  the  girls  (0.25). 

OTHER   DEFECTS  AND   ABNORMALITIES. 

Without  drawing  further  conclusions  from  the  table,  it  is  evident 
that  boys  in  general  show  a  much  higher  per  cent  of  defects  than  girls. 
Many  reasons  might  be  given,  but  it  may  be  said  that  boys  are  exposed 
to  more  danger  from  accident  and  to  more  temptations  than  girls. 
This  parallelism  seems  to  appear  in  other  forms;  thus  in  prison  and 
reformatories  there  are  four  or  five  of  the  male  sex  to  one  of  the 
female  sex.  But  it  would  seem  that  when  there  are  defects  in  the 
female  they  are  more  significant  and  serious  than  in  the  male. 

A  general  conclusion  as  to  all  children  with  abnormalities  is,  that 
they  are  inferior  not  only  in  mental  ability,  but  in  weight,  height,  and 
circumference  of  head  to  children  in  general. 

MEASUREMENTS  AND   ABNORMALITIES. 

There  is  doubtless  in  the  early  periods  of  life,  up  to  adult  age,  a  cer- 
tain relation  of  bodily  organs  to  one  another.  A  want  of  such  relation 
may  produce  abnormalities,  which  in  turn  may  give  a  lack  of  grace, 
symmetry,  or  beauty  to  the  human  body.  If  such  a  relation  is  to  be 
generally  established,  so  that  we  may  know  within  certain  limits  what 
can  be  considered  the  proper  bodily  proportions,  measurements  of 


14  A   PLAN   FOR   THE   STUDY   OF   MAN. 

large  numbers  of  children  at  different  ages  and  stages  of  growth  must 
be  made.  Hence  the  only  way  to  a  definite  knowledge  as  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  human  body  will  be  through  long  and  painstaking 
investigations.  Thus  the  causes  of  homeliness,  lack  of  beauty,  deform- 
ities, and  the  like,  may  be  more  definitely  ascertained.  This  in  turn 
may  help  in  their  prevention.  Such  abnormalities  affect  not  only 
beauty,  but,  what  is  more  important,  health.  When  abnormalities  are 
discovered  early  in  youth  there  is  more  opportunity  of  avoiding  their 
evil  effects.  The  relation  of  these  body  abnormalities  to  disease  may 
prove  of  practical  importance.  Thus  Hildebrand,  an  experienced 
investigator,  remarks  that  delicate,  slender  people  are  much  more  sub- 
ject to  typhoid  fever  than  to  consumption;  another  says  of  the  same 
class  that  they  are  much  more  inclined  to  nervous  troubles  than  other 
people.  Ano'ther  physician  of  large  experience  asserts  that  where  chest 
and  trunk  remain  undeveloped  the  head  and  extremities  are  much  more 
developed. 

JBeneke  in  Marburg  has  shown  that  the  relation  between  the  size  of 
the  heart  and  the  circumference  of  the  arteries  is  gradually  changed 
during  the  growth  of  the  body,  and  that  there  is  a  consequent  varia- 
tion in  blood  pressure.  This  is  specially  true  at  puberty,  when  the 
heart  increases  very  fast  in  volume;  for  the  arteries  increase  much  in 
length  with  the  increase  of  length  of  body,  but  their  diameter  is  rela- 
tively little  increased,  so  that  much  more  work  is  required  of  the 
heart.  Thus  the  growth  in  the  length  of  body  can  be  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  development  of  the  heart.  Should  this  growth  be 
irregular  or  abnormally  fast,  serious  difficulties  may  arise,  and  Beneke 
has  endeavored  to  show  that  herein  lies  the  cause  of  the  development 
of  consumption  at  puberty.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  determin- 
ing the  normal  rate  of  growth  is  evident. 

We  have  mentioned  these  general  opinions  of  experienced  physicians 
and  specialists  as  an  indication  of  the  utility  of  the  measurements  of 
children. 

CIRCUMFERENCE   OF   HEAD. 

The  writer  found,  with  the  Washington  children,  that  as  circumfer- 
ence of  head  increased  mental  ability  increased.  This  conclusion  is 
in  accord  with  the  general  truth  held  by  zoologists,  that  in  animals 
the  relative  size  of  brain  to  body  is  an  index  of  intelligence.  It  was 
also  found  that  as  age  increases  in  children,  brightness  decreases  in 
most  studies.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  relative 
size  of  head  to  body  in  children  is  much  greater  than  in  adults. a 

RECENT   RESULTS   OF   MEASUREMENTS   OF   CHILDREN. 

We  desire  to  consider  some  recent  results  of  measurements  of  chil- 
dren in  general.  For  most  of  these  data  we  are  indebted  to  American 
investigators.  Some  of  the  conclusions  may  seem  somewhat  frag- 
mentary, but  this  is  what  one  might  expect  in  new  fields  of  inquiry. 

It  may  be  as  well  to  remark  here  as  any  place,  that  while  most  of 
the  conclusions  in  this  paper  are  based  upon  a  considerable  number  of 
cases,  they  must  be  taken  in  a  general  sense  only;  that  is,  they  are  true 
in  the  majority  of  cases.  Any  assertion  about  human  beings  that  is, 

*  For  further  details,  see  Experimental  Study  of  Children. 


A   PLAN   FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  15 

so  to  speak,  three-fourths  true  and  one-fourth  false,  is  valuable,  for  it 
is  like  much  useful  knowledge  in  the  world  which  is  only  approxi- 
mately true. 

SUPERIORITY   OF   SOME   CHILDREN. 

It  has  been  found  from  a  number  of  investigations  in  different  parts 
of  our  country  that  children  of  well-to-do  parents  are  taller  and  heavier 
for  their  age  than  children  of  poor  parents.  This  is  doubtless  due  to 
better  food,  air,  and  light  enjoyed  by  those  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances. 

Children  of  American-born  parents  are  taller  and  heavier  than  those 
of  other  nationalities.  One  reason  for  this  may  be  that  American 
children  are  better  adapted  by  heredity  and  education  to  their  own 
country.  This  want  of  adaptability  is  illustrated  by  the  belief  that 
foreigners  in  a  new  country  generally  commit  more  crime  relative  to 
their  number  than  natives. 

A  certain  specialist  found  by  percussion  a  that  the  liver  of  the  boys 
of  the  well-to-do  classes  was  larger  than  in  boys  of  the  poorer  classes. 

It  would  seem  that  first-born  children  excel  later-born  children  in 
height  and  weight.  This  may  be  due  to  the  greater  vigor  of  the 
mother  at  the  birth  of  the  first  child.  We  are  reminded  of  a  fact, 
mentioned  later,  that  out  of  fifty  great  men  of  this  century  30  per 
cent  were  the  youngest  sons. 

In  England  it  was  found  that  growth  degenerates  as  we  go  lower  in 
the  social  scale,  there  being  a  difference  of  even  5  inches  in  height 
between  the  best  and  worst  fed  classes  in  the  community. 

An  investigation  of  10,000  children  in  Switzerland  showed  that 
children  born  in  summer  are  taller  for  their  age  than  those  born  in 
winter.  As  a  majority  of  children  in  the  public  schools  are  poor,  in 
winter  their  parents  are  forced  to  economize  more  on  account  of 
expense  of  heating;  their  rooms  are  also  liable  to  be  small  and  poorly 
ventilated,  while  in  summer  they  are  out  in  the  fresh  air;  food  is  also 
cheaper  and  more  varied.  The  influence  of  unhealthy  conditions  on 
a  very  young  child  would  be  much  greater  than  when  it  is  older  and 
better  able  to  resist  them. 

It  has  been  said  that  growth  is  regular,  and  any  deviation  from  it 
tends  to  produce  disease;  hence  the  importance  of  determining  what 
regular  growth  is.  A  large  head  is  frequently  accompanied  with  a 
contracted  chest;  here  mental  action  may  be  slow,  probably  from 
deficient  supply  of  purified  blood.  One  specialist  has  noted  that  boys 
with  small  frames  and  very  large  heads  are  liable  to  be  deficient  in 
repose  of  character. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  give  the  results  of  some  of  these  experi- 
ments upon  school  children  of  our  country. 

CHILDREN'S  RIGHTS. 

In  order  to  test  the  ideas  of  children  as  to  rights,  the  following 
story  was  told  them:  "Jamie's  father  gave  him  a  dog,  but  Jamie 
often  forgot  to  feed  it,  and  the  dog  cried  often  at  the  door.  Then 
Jamie's  father  gave  the  dog  to  a  kind  little  girl  who  lived  down  the 
street." 

a  Tapping  on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  order  to  learn  the  condition  of  the  part 
beneath  by  the  sounds  produced. 


16  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MA*. 

The  children  were  asked:  Who  had  the  best  right  to  the  dog,  the 
father,  Jamie,  or  the  little  girl,  and  why? 

In  answering  this  question,  70  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  57  per  cent 
of  the  girls  thought  the  little  girl  had  the  best  right  to  the  dog;  4A  per 
cent  of  the  children  thought,  because  Jamie  had  been  so  cruel  in  neg- 
lecting to  feed  the  dog,  he  did  not  deserve  it.  This  seems  to  weaken 
the  theory  commonly  held  that  children  are  cruel  by  nature. 

About  25  per  cent  thought  the  father  had  the  best  right  to  the  dog, 
saying  that  he  had  paid  for  the  dog,  and  he  was  older  and  would  take 
better  care  of  it.  About  8  per  cent  said  Jamie  had  the  best  right, 
because  when  a  thing  is  given  away  you  can't  take  it  back  again.  It 
was  principally  the  older  children  who  took  this  last  point  of  view. 

RIGHT-HANDEDNESS. 

It  has  been  for  a  long  time  under  discussion  whether  it  is  not  better 
to  teach  right-handed  children  to  use  their  left  hand  more,  the  idea 
being  to  increase  symmetry  and  uniformity  in  their  development. 
This  theory  seems  very  plausible,  but  recent  investigation  tends  to 
show  that  right-handedness  is  natural,  and  that  its  superiority  over 
the  left  hand  increases  with  growth,  also  that  the  brightest  pupils  are, 
so  to  speak,  more  right-handed  than  the  others.  This  suggests  the 
modern  tendency  to  become  expert  in  one  thing  rather  than  be  upon 
the  surface  of  many  things.  The  left  hand  does  best  when  it  supple- 
ments or  helps  the  right  nand.  It  is  a  general  opinion  that  criminals  a 
have  not  only  more  left-handed  people  among  them,  but  they  are  also 
more  expert  with  both  hands  than  people  in  general.  Sometimes  the 
finger  muscles  of  the  pickpocket  are  cut,  so  that  he  can  apply  either 
hand  with  greater  dexterity. 

DANGER   AT   AGE   OF   PUBERTY. 

It  has  been  found  that  girls  from  about  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of 
age  are  both  taller  and  heavier  than  boys,  but  at  no  other  time;  that 
is,  they  excel  in  average  height  and  weight.  This  pubertal  period  is 
the  time  when  girls  are  growing  very  fast,  and  so  need  most  of  their 
vitality  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions  ot  life.  For  this' reason 
they  should  be  free  from  care  and  work  more  than  at  other  times;  but 
we  regret  to  say  that  both  their  home  and  school  duties  seem  to  be 
increased  at  this  time,  so  that  their  health  is  often  impaired  if  not 
undermined.  Girls  seem  to  have  less  power  of  endurance  than  boys 
at  all  ages.  This  is  more  marked  at  the  time  of  puberty. 

It  is  known  also  that  during  puberty  the  body  grows  in  length  at 
the  cost  of  chest  development,  and  the  arteries  increase  also  in  length, 
but  their  diameter  is  relatively  little  increased,  so  that  much  more 
work  is  required  of  the  heart.  If  now,  by  any  unfavorable  conditions, 

frowth  is  hindered  or  made  irregular,  there  may  be  danger  of  the  early 
evelopment  of  consumption.    At  this  period,  also,  girls  are  most  dis- 
posed to  sickliness,  aenemia,  headache,  and  other  ills. 

UNFAVORABLE   INFLUENCE    OF   CITY   LIFE. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  average  size  of  body  during  school  years 
is  less  and  growth  is  slower  in  the  city  than  in  the  country.  While 

a" Criminology"  (by  writer). 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  17 

city-bred  children  are  usually  more  vivacious,  they  seem  to  have  less 
power  of  endurance  than  children  reared  in  the  country.  The  pubertal 
period,  however,  comes  earlier  in  the  city,  and  the  children  are  more 
advanced,  in  a  way,  but  this  is  regarded  as  a  premature  and  unfavor- 
able development.  Country  life  and  air  are  more  adapted  for  over- 
coming any  injurious  effect  of  confinement  in  school. 

* 

DEFECTS   OF  SIGHT  AND   HEARING. 

In  an  examination  of  about  5,000  school  children  in  Chicago,  35  per 
cent  were  found  to  have  defective  eyesight;  the  def ectiveness  increases 
the  most  during  the  first  three  years  of  school  life,  and  it  seems  to  be 
due  to  faults  in  school  conditions. 

In  the  tests  of  hearing  it  was  found  that  a  large  number  of  the  pupils 
could  hear  with  one  ear  better  than  the  other.  The  importance  of 
seating  such  pupils  on  the  side  of  the  room  where  this  best  hearing 
ear  will  be  toward  the  teacher  is  evident.  Defects  of  sight  and  hear- 
ing are  more  numerous  amongj  the  dull  and  backward  pupils.  In  an 
investigation  in  another  city  it  was  found  that  about  50  per  cent  of 
the  pupils  had  at  least  one  eye  defective  in  vision. 

PHYSICAL   EXAMINATION-: 

Most  of  the  studies  on  large  numbers  of  children  show  that  in  gen- 
eral those  inferior  in  body  are  also  inferior  in  mind.  When  this  bodily 
inferiority  reaches  a  certain  point  a  physical  examination  should  be 
made  to  determine  if  the  pupil  is  strong  enough  to  go  on  with  his 
studies;  for,  however  successful  his  mental  education  may  be,  if  it  is 
at  the  expense  of  his  health  it  will  be  of  doubtful  advantage. 

This  examination  should  extend  not  only  to  sight  and  hearing,  but 
to  the  lungs,  heart,  and  digestive  system.  If  there  are  defects  in 
these  vital  organs  it  certainly  should  be  known.  The  teeth  of  many 
children  could  be  saved  were  they  attended  to  in  time.  This  is  specially 
important  for  the  poorer  classes,  whose  coarse  food  requires  much 
mastication, 

In  short,  a  thorough  physical  examination  of  every  child  on  enter- 
ing school  would  be  one  of  the  greatest  safeguards  for  its  mental  as 
well  as  bodily  health. 

CHILD   STUDY. 

The  study  of  children  might  be  thought  to  mean  the  same  as  what  is 
generally  called  child  study,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  Child  study 
does  not  usually  include  measurements  of  height,  weight,  lung  capac- 
ity, fatigue,  pain,  etc.,  but  applies  more  to  the  study  of  school  children 
by  means  of  questions  which  they  are  to  answer.  The  answers  are 
subsequently  classified  and  conclusions  drawn  from  them.  A  special 
word  has  been  invented  for  child  study,  called  "paidology."  This 
method  in  the  study  of  children  has  been  employed  mostly  by  teachers 
who  have  sought,  through  series  of  questions  to  the  pupil,  to  gain  some 
knowledge  of  what  is  in  the  child's  mind,  and  how  its  mind  works. 

DR.   G.   STANLEY  HALL. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  trace  the  origin  of  any  movement.  Many 
movements  are  inaugurated  which  afterwards  languish,  either  on 
account  of  prematureness  or  from  want  of  insight  into  their  relation 

S.  Doc.  400 2 


18  A    PLAN   FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

to  the  environment  at  the  time;  those  who  develop  and  make  them 
useful  to  civilization  receive  from  society  the  credit. 

There  were  few  scientific  observations  of  child  life  in  America  pre- 
vious to  1800.  At  about  this  time  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  (now  President 
of  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass.),  began  investigations  on  this 
line,  and  continued  his  inquiries  up  to  the  present  time.  It  is  due  to 
him  that  child  study  in  this  country  has  developed  and  become  of 
general  interest. 

In  the  case  of  teachers,  Dr.  Hall's  purpose  has  been  gradually  to 
concentrate  all  psychology,  philosophy,  and  ethics  about  child  study. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  tendencies  of  evolution  in  all  fields  of 
investigation,  and  its  purpose  is  to  aid  in  placing  educational  methods 
on  a  more  scientific  basis.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Hall  himself,  the 
child-study  movement  is  slowly  doing  a  work  "  f  or  studies  of  the 
mind  not  unlike  that  which  Darwin  did  for  the  methods  of  nature 
study,  or  that  embryology  has  done  for  anatomy,  viz,  cross-sectioning 
the  old  methods  of  analysis  and  classification  of  the  powers  and  activ- 
ities of  the  adult  consciousness  by  bringing  in  a  genetic  method,  based 
not  upon  abstraction,  like  Spencer's,  but  on  a  copious  collection  of 
carefully  made  and  critically  sifted  objective  data." 

ABNORMALLY   SHAPED   HEADS. 

It  is  a  general  instinctive  belief  in  us  all  that  when  we  see  an 
irregular  or  poorly  shaped  head,  something  must  be  wrong.  It  is 
true  that  some  of  the  brightest  people  may  have  very  poorly  shaped 
heads,  but  these  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  The  investiga- 
tion of  this  question,  though  limited,  indicates  that  our  instinctive 
disfavor  toward  ill-shaped  heads  is  not  without  some  basis.  It  has 
been  found  that  dull  pupils  have  more  irregularities  in  the  head  and 
face  than  pupils  in  general.  This  was  ascertained  by  an  experiment 
made  on  400  schoolboys,  of  whom  90  had  abnormally  shaped  heads. 
They  all  were  given  simple  figures  to  add  at  certain  limited  times; 
those  who  added  the  most  and  made  the  fewest  mistakes  were  found 
to  have  the  better  shape  heads.  One  must  be  very  careful  here  not 
to  make  any  general  conclusion  from  an  experiment  upon  a  relatively 
small  number.  Yet  the  result  indicates  a  probability ;  to  determine 
its  general  truth  would  of  course  require  investigation  of  a  very  much 
larger  number  of  persons. 

IGNORANCE   OF   CHILDREN. 

The  ignorance  of  children  is  illustrated  in  another  investigation  where 
most  of  them  were  between  the  ages  of  five  and  seven,  fourteen  per 
cent  did  not  know  their  ages.  The  boys  were  more  ignorant  than  the 
girls  as  to  common  things  right  about  them,  where  knowledge  is  assumed. 
Three-fourths  of  the  children  thought  the  world  a  plane,  and  many 
described  it  as  round  like  a  dollar.  Wrong  things  were  specified  much 
more  rapidly  and  by  more  children  than  right  things,  and  there  was 
much  more  variety  of  wrong  things.  This  suggests  a  theory  of  certain 
criminologists  that  children  learn  evil  much  faster  than  good.  Boys 
say  it  is  wrong  to  steal,  fight,  kick,  break  windows,  and  get  drunk, 
while  girls  are  more  liable  to  think  it  is  wrong  not  to  comb  the  hair, 
to  get  butter  on  one's  dress,  climb  trees,  and  unfold  the  hands. 

The  city  children  know  a  little  about  many  things,  and  so  are  liable 
to  be  more  superficial  than  the  country  children,  yet  the  city  children 
know  more  about  human  nature. 


A   PLAN   FOE   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  19 

STRENGTH   OF   MEMORY. 

A  story  of  some  300  words  was  repeated  to  the  children,  and  they 
were  to  write  down  all  they  could  remember  after  it  was  read.  A  con- 
siderable number  remembered  the  first  part  of  the  story  quite  well, 
but  very  little  of  the  latter  part,  showing  probably  the  influence  of 
fatigue.  The  shorter  the  sentences  and  the  less  unessential  the  words 
they  contained,  the  better  they  were  remembered.  This  is  a  practical 
hint  to  speakers  and  writers  who  desire  to  make  more  permanent 
impressions.  The  girls  remembered  more  than  the  boys. 

In  a  comparison  of  white  with  colored  children,  the  colored  children 
showed  the  best  memory.  Those  who  had  good  memories  stood  well 
in  their  classes  as  reported  by  the  teachers. 

CHILDREN   OF   GREAT   MEN. 

In  a  statistical  investigation  of  the  early  life  of  fifty  great  men  of 
the  present  century,  it  was  found  that  while  they  are  absent-minded, 
generally  speaking,  their  memories  are  very  strong  in  the  things  they 
are  interested  in.  In  childhood  the}7  seem  to  be  more  imaginative 
than  average  children.  It  is  generally  said  that  a  great  man  owes  his 
success  to  his  mother's  influence,  but  there  are  many  exceptions. 
They  were  influenced  much  by  some  one  person,  and  the  mother's 
place  was  often  supplied  by  that  of  an  aunt  or  relative.  The  child 
born  of  parents  in  trie  prime  of  physical  life  probably  has  the  better 
chance  01  greatness,  for  the  average  age  of  the  fathers  when  the  great 
man-child  was  born  was  about  38,  and  that  of  the  mothers  30.  The 
average  number  of  children  in  the  families  was  six.  Eleven  of  the 
great  men  were  only  sons,  and  sixteen  youngest  sons;  that  is,  in  all 
over  50  per  cent.  If  it  is  important  to  study  the  criminal  to  find  the 
causes  of  crime  and  thereby  know  best  how  to  prevent  or  lessen  it,  it 
is  perhaps  more  needful  to  study  great  men  in  order  to  learn  those 
conditions  and  characteristics  which  make  them  great. 

FEARS   OF   CHILDREN. 

One  often  feels  that  many  unnecessary  fears  and  pains  are  inflicted 
on  children  by  well-meaning  but  indiscreet  parents.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  a  study  of  American  as  contrasted  with  London  school  chil- 
dren. The  children  of  the  poorer  classes  showed  a  marked  difference 
in  their  answers  to  children  in  more  comfortable  conditions.  The 
poor  children  are  more  natural  in  their  fears — are  not  afraid  of  the 
dark  or  wild  animals  or  the  coal  man  or  even  the  policeman,  but  their 
objects  of  dread  are  the  upsetting  of  a  lamp,  the  possibility  of  father 
or  mother  becoming  sick.  Here  we  see  how  hard  conditions  of  life 
develop  practical  judgment.  There  are  few  evils  without  some  good. 

A  study  of  American  children  shows  that  most  fears  are  created  by 
parents  and  servants.  The  leading  fears  are  those  of  lightning,  thun- 
der, reptiles,  strangers,  the  dark,  death,  domestic  animals,  disease,  wild 
animals,  water,  ghosts,  insects,  rats,  etc.  In  an  Eastern  State  none 
were  afraid  of  high  winds,  but  in  the  West  this  was  one  of  the  main 
things  to  dread.  In  a  certain  State  46  of  the  children  were  in  fear 
of  being  burned  alive.  This  was  evidently  a  result  of  teaching.  A 
majority  of  the  children  feared  ghosts;  others  did  not  dread  them 
because  they  did  not  believe  in  them.  One  way  to  rid  children  of  such 


20  A    PLAN   FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

superstitions  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  a  large  number  had  been 
taught  to  disbelieve  in  them.  But  as  we  can  not  prevent  children  from 
hearing  these  superstitions  from  people  who  do  place  confidence  in 
them,  it  has  been  suggested  to  let  the  children  hear  the  truth  at  the 
same  time.  Harmless  or  even  ennobling  fancies  might  better  take  the 
place  of  more  vulgar  ones. 

BLUSHING. 

It  would  seem  that  fear  is  the  real  cause  of  most  blushing,  which  is 
perhaps  a  relic  of  ancient  sex  fear.  There  is  little  uniformity  in  the 
way  children  blush.  In  some  the  blushing  appears  in  a  small  spot  and 
spreads  in  all  directions,  or  it  goes  only  upward  or  downward,  being 
seen  on  the  neck  last.  The  fear  of  being  noticed  blushing  increases  it; 
thus  one  does  not  blush  so  readily  in  the  dark.  Some  are  forewarned 
that  they  are  going  to  blush  through  tremor,  weakness  in  the  limbs; 
warm  waves  pass  from  feet  upward;  the  heart  seems  to  stop,  then 
beats  more  rapidly;  blood  rushes  upward;  there  is  a  hot  glow  all  over, 
or  cold  all  over;  one  feels  uncomfortable  or  dizzy ;  there  may  be  ting- 
ling in  the  toes  or  fingers;  something  rises  in  the  throat;  eyes  smart, 
ears  ring,  face  prickles;  there  may  be  pressure  inside  the  head. 
Some  fear  they  are  going  to  be  looked  at;  others  feel  foolish,  or  con- 
fused, or  as  if  they  were  going  to  blush.  In  waves  of  blushing  it  is 
thought  there  is  probably  an  increase  of  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain 
with  a  contraction  of  the  arteries  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  Then, 
as  the  blushing  ceases,  the  blood  is  redistributed  again  through  the 
surface  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  with  tingling,  prickling,  and 
often  sweating.  Sometimes  there  is  chill,  weakness,  pallor,  or  head- 
ache. Blushing  occurs  most  at  the  time  of  puberty.  Girls  blush 
much  more  than  boys,  and  when  they  become  women  this  tendency 
remains  later  in  life  than  with  men. 


In  general  children's  interests  lie  largely  in  what  the  object  is  good 
for,  or  what  it  can  do. 

COLLECTING   INTEREST. 

The  collecting  interest  in  children  is  so  strong  that  it  can  be  called 
an  instinct.  It  rises  in  early  childhood,  increases  fast  after  6  years  of 
age,  and  is  strongest  from  8  to  11  years,  declining  as  the  child  grows 
older.  What  a  child  begins  to  collect  seems  to  be  more  a  matter  of 
accident.  The  feeling  is  that  they  must  collect  something.  This  col- 
lective instinct  is  not  a  fad,  but  a  natural  desire  up  to  11  years  of  age. 
but  if  it  continues  on  a  few  years  it  generally  becomes  a  fad. 

The  collecting  interest  is  greatest  with  objects  of  nature,  as  birds' 
eggs,  shells,  etc.  Then  comes  a  desire  to  find  stamps,  and  cigar  tag^ 
are  next  in  degree  of  interest,  followed  by  the  trivial  collections  of 
sticks,  glass,  and  buttons.  Sometimes  the  commercial  spirit  shows 
itself  in  buying  and  trading.  Imitation  and  rivalry  are  the  strongest 
motives;  another  incentive  is  the  innate  desire  for  large  numbers  and 
great  possession. 

INTEREST   IN   THE   BIBLE. 

.  Children  before  9  years  of  age  are  most  interested  in  those  parts  of 
the  New  Testament  which  give  accounts  of  the  birth  and  childhood  of 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  21 

Jesus.  From  9  to  14  years  they  are  more  concerned  with  the  Old 
Testament,  especially  in  the  heroic  and  dramatic  elements  there 
described.  This  is  the  time  they  can  memorize  verses  of  Scripture 
best. 

In  their  youth  or  adolescent  period,  from  12  to  21  about,  there  is 
great  interest  in  the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
especially  in  Christ  and  His  disciples. 

Children  at  all  ages  always  feel  more  interest  in  persons  than  in 
objects  in  the  Bible. 

These  and  similar  facts  as  to  the  time  and  way  in  which  children 
show  their  interest  may  suggest  how  and  at  what  age  different  biblical 
subjects  should  be  taught  them. 

INFLUENCE   OF   TEACHER. 

In  order  to  find  out  the  teacher's  influence,  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons were  asked  to  recall  their  past  school  experiences  and  recollection 
of  teachers,  good  and  bad,  It  was  found  that  pupils  were  most  sus- 
ceptible from  ages  11  to  19,  and  that  the  good  influence  of  a  teacher 
does  not  depend  upon  the  length  of  time  the  pupil  is  under  his  care. 

The  influence  of  a  bad  teacher  will  affect  a  pupil  earlier  than  the 
influence  of  a  good  teacher.  A  teacher  in  a  moment  of  indiscretion 
may  fatally  or  seriously  injure  the  pupil's  future  life. 

There  is  an  unconscious  influence  in  the  teacher's  personality  which 
remains  a. power  in  the  pupil's  character.  This  influence  is  based  on 
what  the  teacher  is  rather  than  on  what  he  says.  It  was  remarked  of 
the  Earl  of  Chatham,  "  Every  body  felt  there  was  something  finer  in 
the  man  than  anything  he  ever  said.'1 

The  pupil  is  attracted  by  externals  much  more  than  one  would  sup- 
pose, as  manners,  dress,  good  looks,  and  voice.  This  suggests  the 
importance  of  neatness  and  good  taste  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

MORAL   EDUCATION. 

No  kind  of  education  can  be  more  important  than  moral.  However 
well  the  pupil's  mind  may  be  trained,  and  however  brilliant  he  may 
be,  it  is  of  little  avail  if  there  are  no  good  moral  habits  instilled  into 
him;  for  otherwise  he  might  live  only  to  become  a  criminal. 

This  question  was  asked  of  a  large  number  of  persons:  What  punish- 
ments or  rewards  have  you  ever  had  that  did  }^ou  good  or  harm  ? 

The  majority  claimed  to  be  benefited  by  punishment.  The  boys 
thought  the  effects  of  a  good  plain  talk  were  salutary,  and  none  had  a 
complaint  to  make  against  a  good  4  4  dressing-down. "  Many  were  grate- 
ful for  having  had  punishment  in  due  season.  There  is  a  time  in  many 
a  boy's  life  when  he  thinks  he  is  lord  of  everything,  and  it  would  seem 
that  a  good  whipping  is  often  the  best  way  to  cure  this  defect.  Ten- 
derness is  excellent  for  most  children,  but  there  are  certain  natures  on 
whom  it  is  wasted  because  they  simply  abuse  it. 

Conscience  does  not  seem  to  be  very  powerful  in  children  before  the 
age  of  9.  Preaching,  or  advice  unsought  for,  does  not  seem  to  do 
much  good,  while  suggestion  does.  As  to  the  influence  of  companions, 
it  was  greatest  between  the  ages  of  10  and  15.  This  influence  is  next 
to  that  of  home. 

The  influence  of  parents  almost  all  described  as  of  a  pleasant  and 
helpful  nature.  The  difference  in  moral  influence  due  to  sex  of  par- 
ent that  is  so  often  dwelt  upon  does  not  show  itself.  Nearly  all  the 


22  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

things  to  make  a  noble  character  are  found  in  both  father  and  mother. 
Moral  training  not  only  consists  in  moral  habits,  but  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  feelings  and  emotions  which  have  their  roots  in  the  reli- 
fious  sentiments  inculcated  early  in  the  child's  life.  As  the  parents 
ave  the  heart  and  sympathy  of  the  child,  they  can  make  it  almost 
what  they  will.  If  they  gave  as  much  time  and  patience  to  the  nurture 
of  their  children  as  they  do  to  society,  business,  amusement,  and  pets, 
much  of  the  evil  and  crime  in  the  world  might  cease.  Unless  children 
are  brought  up  and  trained  well,  and  those  provided  for  who  have  no 
proper  home,  there  is  little  probability  of  making  the  world  better. 
We  must  place  the  knife  and  fork  in  the  child's  hand  if  we  wish  them 
properly  held.  So  morality,  like  etiquette,  must  be  taught  through 
repeated  acts,  that  become  a  habit.  There  is  perhaps  nothing  more 
important  to  the  individual,  family,  and  country  than  the  moral  edu- 
cation of  children. 

INSTRUMENTS  OF  PRECISION. 

A  thorough  study  of  any  human  being  can  not  be  made  without 
instruments  of  precision.  Such  an  investigation  of  living  man  is  one 
of  the  most  recent  tendencies  of  science.  Instruments  of  precision 
have  been  employed  more  extensively,  perhaps,  in  the  study  of  the 
abnormal,  as  illustrated  in  criminology,*1  but  it  is  time  they  were  used 
in  the  investigation  of  normal  man. 

An  instrumental  method  of  inquiry  is  a  more  exact  way  of  ascertain- 
ing the  effects  of  mental,  moral,  and  physical  forces  upon  the  body,  of 
many  of  which  we  are  unconscious.  The  facts  thus  obtained  bear  the 
closest  relation  to  new  questions  in  the  development  and  education  of 
mah. 

LIMITATION   OF   THE    SENSES. 

The  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth,  the  distance  of  the  stars,  and  the 
weight  of  the  air  are  not  appreciated  by  our  senses,  and  often  may  seem 
contradictory  to  them.  The  sensations  of  cold  and  heat  are  not  abso- 
lute, but  merely  relative  to  the  temperature  of  our  bodies,  frequently 
misleading  us.  The  illusions  of  sight,  hearing,  and  touch  point  to  the 
conclusion,  accepted  by  modern  psychology,  that  our  ideas  of  the 
external  world  are  the  result  of  a  long  and  unconscious  education  of 
the  senses. 

Thus  science,  in  its  efforts  to  seek  the  truth,  has  a  special  difficulty 
to  contend  against;  it  is  the  defectiveness  or  limitation  of  our  senses. 
Instruments  of  precision  are  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  these  defects 
by  increasing  the  scope  of  the  senses,  so  that,  when  truth  may  be  found, 
it  may  be  described  more  fully  and  determined  more  definitely. 

In  ancient  times  there  were  instruments  to  measure  the  weight 
and  height,  etc.,  or  what  is  called  the  static  condition.  Subsequently 
dynamic  movements,  electric  currents,  variations  of  temperature,  etc. , 
were  studied,  but  our  senses  were  too  slow  and  confused  to  determine 
these  conditions,  so  instruments  were  necessary  to  measure  the  very 
small  in  time  and  in  motion. 


THE   GRAPHIC   METHOD. 


The  graphic  method  was  employed  to  translate  those  changes  of  the 
activity  of  forces  into  the  language  of  the  changes  themselves,  which 

aSee  "Education  and  Pathosocial  Studies,"  by  author,  reprint  from  Reports  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1889-90  and  1893-94. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


23 


words  can  not  do.  Writing  consists  in  signs  more  or  less  conventional, 
but  the  graphic  method  is  natural;  it  is  a  universal  language,  as 
expressed  in  the  line  or  the  curve. 

Descartes  inaugurated  the  graphic  expression  of  ideas.  This  method 
was  then  soon  used  to  represent  diverse  variations,  as  the  comparison 
of  economical  and  social  phenomena.  Tables  were  published  in  Eng- 
land, then  in  France,  showing  the  curves  representing  successive  vari- 
ations of  population,  wealth,  agricultural  production,  etc.  Since  then 
this  method  has  been  enlarged  so  as  to  apply  to  all  sorts  of  things.  It 
gives  clearness  and  conciseness  to  its  representations. 

Instruments  of  precision  through  the  graphic  method  furnish  a  mode 
of  expression  and  a  means  of  research.  Every  science  accumulates 
facts  and  observations  and  compares  them  to  show  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect.  Those  comparisons  are  the  more  important  the  larger 
the  number  of  data,  but  this  often  gives  rise  to  extreme  complexity. 
The  graphic  method  can  reduce  these  data  to  a  curve  that  will  give 
clearness  and  definiteness  to  their  meaning.  Nature's  processes  are 
often  so  complex  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  attention  to  many  asso- 
ciated phenomena  at  a  time.  Instruments  of  precision  with  their  trac- 
ings can  record  the  different  movements. 


MEASUREMENTS   OF   THE    CRANIUM. 

•* 

The  measurements  of  the  cranium  are  perhaps  the  most  important, 
as  it  incases  the  brain.  It  is  also  probable,  for  the  same  reason,  that 
defects  of  the  cranium 
are  more  significant  than 
those  in  other  portions 
of  the  body.  It  is  some- 
times said  that  in  general 
the  nearer  a  physical  de- 
fect is  to  the  brain  the 
more  significant  it  is.  In 
this  connection  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  a  high 
palate  is  a  frequent  ac- 
companiment of  mental 
feebleness — a  sign  of  con- 
genital defect. 

The  two  most  common 
measurements  of  the  head 
are  its  maximum  length  and  maximum  width.  In  order  to  compare 
the  length  and  breadth  conveniently  the  width  is  multiplied  by  100 
and  divided  by  the  length,  giving  the  cephalic  index,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  important  measurements  in  anthropology.  When  this  index 
is  75  or  less  the  person  is  considered  long  headed  or  dolichocephalic; 
when  it  is  more  than  75  and  less  than  80  the  head  is  called  medium 
or  mesocephalic,  and  when  the  index  is  from  80  to  85,  inclusive,  the 
individual  is  said  to  be  broad  headed  or  brachy cephalic. 

The  instrument  used  to  measure  the  head  is  the  callipers,  repre- 
sented in  fig.  1. 


FIG.  1.  Callipers  (Broca). 


24 


A    PLAN    FOE    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


COLD. 


FIG.  2.  Temperature  spots  (Eulenburg). 


SENSIBILITY   TO   HEAT. 

There  have  been  found  on  the  body  what  are  called  temperature  spots 
(Goldscheider  and  Blix).  They  are  arranged  in  lines  or  in  chains;  thus 
in  fig.  2  are  represented  the  cold  and  warm  spots  of  the  upper  side  of 
the  forearm. 

The  temperature  sense  seems  to  have  special  cold  nerves  and  warm 
nerves  which  blend  with  the  nerve  of  touch;  thus  specific  cold  and 

warm  sensation  are  felt  at  points  or 
areas  on  the  skin  which  correspond  to 
the  ends  of  the  temperature  nerves. 
This  extends  the  doctrine  of  the  specific 
energy  of  the  senses. 

The  least  sensibility  to  heat  was  de- 
termined by  the  therm  aesthesiometer  of 
Eulenburg  (fig.  3). 

This  is  an  instrument  consisting  of 
two  thermometers  fastened  together,  as 
seen  in  the  figure.  The  electrical  arrangement  for  changing  the 
temperature  of  the  instrument  was  not  employed.  The  left-hand 
thermometer  (A)  was  heated  until  it  registered  about  10°  higher  tem- 
perature than  the  right-hand  thermometer  (B);  then  the  two  ther- 
mometers were  placed  on  the  palmar  surface  of  the  wrist  in  a  line*  at 
right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  wrist.  The  subject  was  asked  which 
was  the  warmer,  and  on  replying  correctly  the 
thermometers  were  held  on  the  skin  until  the  sub- 
ject could  not  tell  which  was  the  warmer.  At 
this  instant  the  difference  in  degrees  between  the 
thermometers  was  read.  This  difference  must  be 
regarded  only  as  a  relative  indication  of  the  least 
sensibility  to  heat.  Distinguishing  small  differ- 
ences of  temperature  indicates  acuteness  of  sensi- 
bility to  heat;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  greater 
the  difference  of  temperature  required  to  be  per- 
ceived by  the  subject  the  greater  the  oHuseness 
to  heat.  Thus  if  C  can  not  tell  the  difference 
between  the  two  thermometers  after  their  differ- 
ence is  less  than  3°  and  D  after  it  is  less  than  2°, 
D  is  more  acute  to  heat  by  1°  than  C. 

STRENGTH   OF   HAND  GRASP. 

The  strength  of  hand  grasp  is  measured  by  the 
dynamometer.  This  instrument  (fig.  4)  is  sq  ueezed 
in  the  hand  while  the  arm  is  held  out  horizontally 
from  the  side  of  the  body.  The  strength  of  the 
right  hand  was  generally  taken  first.  •  The  dyna-  FIG< 
mometer  is  to  some  extent  a  sociological  instrument,  in  distinguish- 
ing those  who  do  manual  labor  from  those  who  do  not  by  the  greater 
strength  of  hand  in  the  former. 

SENSIBILITY    TO    LOCALITY    ON    THE    PALMAR    SURFACE    OF    THE    WRIST. 

The  capacity  of  distinguishing  points  on  the  body  by  the  sense  of 
touch  is  called  the  sense  of  locality.  The  palmar  surface  of  the 
wrist  was  the  part  of  the  body  chosen,  owing  to  its  convenience 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


25 


for  making  the  experiment.  The  sense  of  locality  on  the  skin  varies 
in  acuteness  according  to  the  mobility  of  the  part,  increasing  in  the 
extremities  toward  the  fingers 
and  toes. 

The  instrument  used  in  de- 
termining the  least  sensibility 
to  locality  is  the  sesthesio- 
meter  (fig.  5). 

The  two  points,  as  seen  in  the 
figure,  were  drawn  15  milli- 
meters apart.  The  pupil  closed 
his  eyes,  and  the  two  points 
were  made  to  touch  simulta- 

neously  the  skin  on  the  rjalmar  surface  of  the  wrist.  He  was  asked 
if  he  felt  one  or  two  points.  In  case  he  felt  only  one  point,  the 
instrument  was  raised  and  the  points  were  moved  farther  apart.  If 
he  felt  the  two  points,  they  were  moved  closer  together.  Just  as 
soon  as  he  became  uncertain  in  either  case,  as  to  whether  there  were 


FIG.  5.— .Esthesiometer. 


one  or  two  points  touching  the  skin,  the  distance  between  the  points 
was  read  in  millimeters  as  recorded  by  the  scale  on  the  rod.  It  takes 
more  acuteness  to  distinguish  two  points  on  the  skin  the  closer  the 
points  are  together.  The  distance  of  the  two  points  from  each  other, 
when  the  pupil  is  in  doubt,  is  taken  as  a  measure  of  his  sense  of  local- 
ity. The  less  the  distance  the  more  acute  is  his  sense,  and  the  greater 
the  distance  the  more  obtuse  his  sense  of  locality. 


BARO-ELECTRO-^STHESIOMETER. 


The  baro-electro-sesthesiometer,  as  its  name  indicates,  measures  the  amount  of 
pressure  at  the  time  electrical  sensibility  to  tingling  or  pain  is  felt. 
The  instrument  (fig.  6)  is  Eulenburg's  barsesthesiometer,  with  such  additions  by 


FIG.  6.— Baro-eleetro-eesthesiometer.    (Eulenburg  and  MacDonald.) 

the  author  as  to  make  it  serve  for  an  electrode.  Two  round  steel  knobs  can  be 
screwed  on  to  the  end  of  rod  A;  one  is  20  millimeters,  the  other  35  millimeters  in 
diameter.  At  B  is  fastened  a  short  rod,  with  a  hole  and  screw,  by  which  a  wire  can 
be  held,  which  connects  with  the  battery.  An  indifferent  electrode  is  fastened,  say, 
to  the  back  of  the  head.  We  will  suppose  it  is  desired  to  find  the  strength  of  cur- 
rent passing  through  the  cranium  and  brain.  The  instrument  is  pressed  against  the 


26 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


forehead.  The  advantage  is  that  the  amount  of  pressure  is  known  and  can  be  kept 
constant,  whereas  with  the  ordinary  electrode  the  amount  of  pressure  is  unknown 
and  is  liable  to  vary,  so  that  in  comparing  two  persons  the  difference  in  the  strength 


FIG.  7.— Temple  algometer.    (MacDonald. ) 

of  the  current  required  to  make  them  feel  it  may  be  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
pressure  rather  than  by  the  real  difference  in  their  electrical  sensibility. 

THE   MEASUREMENT   OF   PAIN. 

Pain  is  caused  by  applying  to  a  sensory  nerve  a  greater  stimulation  than  is  normal. 
The  stimulation  may  be"  mechanical,  electrical,  thermal,  etc.  The  measurement  of 
pain  can  only  be  approximated,  and  here  there  is  often  difficulty. 

The  writer  has  designed  a  new  instrument  (fig.  7),  which  may  be  called  a  temporal 
or  temple  algometer. 

It  measures  sensibility  to  painful  or  disagreeable  impressions  caused  by  pressure, 
and  is  generally  applied  to  the  temporal  muscles.  The  instrument  consists  of  a 
brass  cylinder  B  F,  with  a  steel  rod  C  running  through  one  of  its  ends;  this  rod  is 
attached  to  a  spring,  with  a  marker  E  on  the  scale,  measuring  pressure  from  0  to 
4,000  grams.  *  The  brass  disk  D  is  15  millimeters  in  diameter;  a  piece  of  flannel  is 
glued  to  its  surface  so  as  to  exclude  the  feeling  of  the  steel  when  pressed  against  the 


FIG.  8. 

skin,  thus  giving  a  pure  pressure  sensation.  The  whole  instrument  is  30  centimeters 
in  length. 

In  using  this  algometer  it  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  as  represented  in  fig.  8,  by  the 
experimenter,  who  stands  back  of  the  subject  and  presses  the  disk  D  against  the 
right  temporal  muscle;  then  he  moves  in  front  of  the  subject,  where  he  can 
conveniently  press  the  disk  D  against  the  left  temporal  muscle.  As  soon  as  the  sub- 
ject feels  the  pressure  to  be  the  least  disagreeable,  the  amount  of  pressure  is  read 
from  the  scale  A  (fig.  7),  as  indicated  by  the  marker  E.  The  subject  sometimes 
hesitates  to  say  just  when  the  pressure  becomes  the  least  disagreeable,  but  this  is 
part  of  the  experiment.  The  idea  is  to  approximate  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
threshold  of  pain. 

In  making  experiments  upon  both  sexes  the  author  has  found  women  to  be  more 
acute  in  sensitiveness  of  disagreeableness  or  pain  from  pressure  than  men. 

In  the  three  following  tables  (2,  2«,  26)  are  given  recent  measurements  of  pain 
by  Misses  F.  Alice  Kellor,  Emily  Dunning,  Alice  O.  Moore,  and  Alice  E.  Palmer. 
These  measurements  were  made  with  the  author's  temple  algometer. 

aln  experiments  upon  criminals  a  pressure  of  4,000  grams  would  in  some  cases  not 
feel  the  least  disagreeable.  A  larger  form  of  the  instrument  is  being  constructed,  so 
as  to  measure  8,000  grams  pressure. 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


27 


Four  distinct  classes  are  represented  in  the  tables:  University  women  students, 
washerwomen,  business  women  (as  clerks  and  stenographers),  and  young  women  of 
the  wealthy  classes. 

The  young  women  of  the  wealthy  classes  (Table  26)  are,  according  to  the  meas- 
urements, very  much  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  any  of  the  other  classes.  The 
university  women  are  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  the  washerwomen  (Tables  2,  2«). 
The  business  women  are,  however,  more  sensitive  than  the  university  women.  As 
is  well  known,  the  majority  of  university  students,  both  men  and  women,  are  not 
wealthy,  but  simply  in  moderate  circumstances.  It  seems  tfiat  the  sociological  con- 
dition is  one  of  the  main  factors  to  affect  sensibility  to  pain. 

TABLE  2. — Measurements  (in  grams)  of  the  least  sensibility  to  pain  in  university  women 
students,  with  temple  algometer. 

[By  F.  Alice  Kellor  and  Emily  Dunning,  of  Cornell  University.] 


Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

17  years.                  .  .          .... 

1,726 

1,925 

21  years  ... 

1,560 

1  350 

17  years 

1,560 

1,150 

21  vears 

2  450 

1  550 

21  years  

3,225 

2  750 

Total  

3,275 
1  637 

3,075 
1  537 

21  years  

1,650 

1,450 

2  000 

1  750 

Total  
Average  

8,875 
2,218 

7,100 
1,775 

19  years  

2,460 

1.950 

22  years  

2,  725 

2  400 

19  years                                 ... 

2,900 

2,550 

23  years 

2  200 

2  400 

19  years 

2,550 

2,700 

23  vears 

1  600 

1  350 

19  years 

2  825 

3  000 

19  years 

3,900 

4,000 

Total 

6  525 

6  150 

19  years 

2  450 

2  950 

Average 

2  175 

2  050 

1  450 

1  950 

25  years 

2  650 

1  926 

Total  1  
Average  

20,525 
2,565 

20,850 
2,606 

27  years  

2,600 

2,350 

20  years  

2,325 

2-,  125 

Total 

4  350 

1,600 
3  950 

20  years  

3,400 

2,200 

2  175 

1  QT^i 

20  years  

2,800 

2,100 

20  years  

1,600 

1,450 

2  150 

2  625 

20  years  

1,350 

1,900 

1  550 

2  10O 

20  years  

2,925 

1,050 

1  700 

1  100 

20  vears  

2,  325 

2,900 

1  650 

2  150 

20  years 

1  750 

2  425 

20  years  

1,550 

1,750 

Total  

7,050 

7,976 

Total 

20  025 

17  900 

Average  

1,762 

1,993 

Average 

2  225 

1  988 

Average  of  all 

2  2'20 

2  088 

TABLE  2a. — Measurements  (in  grams)  of  the  least  sensibility  to  pain  in  washerwomen  and 
business  women,  with  temple  algometer. 

[By  Alice  O.  Moore,  of  the  Charity  Organization  Society,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.] 


Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

WASHERWOMEN." 

25  vears  

2,750 

2,950 

BUSINESS  WOMEN  (CLERKS, 
STENOGRAPHERS,  ETC.).»> 

31  vears  

4,600 

4,500 

30  vears  

1  600 

1  000 

31  vears 

3  500 

4  000 

31  years 

400 

1  300 

32  vears  

2,150 

1,900 

35  years  

,100 

1,150 

:5">  years 

4  000 

4,000 

38  years 

100 

1  450 

3t>  vears 

2  300 

2  050 

40  years 

200 

1  450 

37  vears  

2,700 

2,800 

45  years  

,650 

1  350 

39  vears 

3  134 

3,400 

60  vears 

650 

1  600 

40  vears 

3  900 

3  750 

60  years 

ooo 

850 

41  years  

2,900 

3,000 

60  years  

2,050 

2,000 

3  450 

3  250 

45  years 

2  950 

2  600 

Total 

12  650 

12  150 

49  years  

2,250 

2,850 

Average. 

1,405 

1,350 

56  years 

2  650 

2  250 

2  421 

2  410 

Total  

43,034 

43,300 

Average 

3  073 

3  092 

'Average  age,  38  years. 


b  Average  age,  44  years. 


28 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


TABLE  26. — Measurements  (in  grams]  of  the  least  sensibility  to  pain  in  young  women  of 
the  well-to-do  classes,  with  temple  algometer. 

[By  Alice  E.  Palmer,  teacher  of  mathematics,  Pittsburg,  Pa.] 


Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

Age. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

12  8  years 

700 

650 

1C  2  years 

1  000 

1  100 

12  9  years                            

750 

600 

16.3  years         

1,000 

1,000 

12  10  years 

650 

800 

16  3  years 

900 

1,100 

12  11  years 

800 

850 

16  3  years 

650 

700 

16  8  years 

950 

1  100 

Total 

2  900 

2,900 

16  9  vears 

1,100 

950 

Average  

725 

725 

16.9  years  

900 

950 

1  150 

1  200 

16.9  years  

1,000 

1,050 

13  4  years 

600 

600 

Total 

7  500 

7  950 

13  6  years              

750 

750 

Average  

937 

993 

Total 

2  500 

2,550 

17  1  years 

750 

850 

833 

850 

1  750 

1  550 

17  2  years 

700 

650 

14  years 

1  600 

1  550 

17  2  years 

1  500 

2  000 

14  4  years  .      .           

950 

950 

17.4  years    

1,200 

1,150 

14  6  years 

700 

700 

17  7  years 

1,300 

1,350 

14  7  years  

1,000 

950 

1  7.9  years  

1,700 

1,600 

1  050 

1  000 

Total 

4  250 

4  150 

17  10  years 

600 

650 

1  062 

1  037 

Total 

10  550 

10  800 

15  1  years 

950 

950 

Average 

1  172 

1  200 

600 

650 

15  2  years 

1,700 

1,550 

18  years 

850 

950 

15  3  years 

700 

650 

18  2  years 

600 

600 

15  4  years  

1,450 

1,500 

18  4  years  

2.000 

1  600 

155  years 

950 

1  050 

18  8  years 

1,050 

950 

750 

800 

15  6  years 

850 

900 

Total  

4,500 

4  100 

15  6  years 

600 

650 

Average 

1  125 

1  025 

15  6  years   . 

950 

950 

15  7  years 

1  350 

1,400 

19  1  years 

800 

850 

15  9  years 

750 

850 

19  2  years 

850 

900 

15  9  years 

600 

800 

15  9  years 

1  650 

1  650 

Total 

1  650 

1  750 

825 

876 

Total 

13,850 

14,250 

Average 

989 

1  017 

PRELIMINARY  TRAINING  FOR  STUDY  IN  A  PSYCHO-PHYSICAL  LABO- 
RATORY. 


It  is  difficult  to  recommend  to  students,  after 
just  what  studies  to  pursue  preliminary  to  taking  up  psycho-physics, 
which  touches  upon  so  many  different  departments  of  knowledge.  The 
writer  will  venture  a  few  remarks  and  suggestions. 

Physiological  psychology,  or  psycho-physics, a  is  no  misnomer  for 
modern  psychology,  because  it  is  as  much  if  not  more  physical  than 
psychical.  That,  consequently,  a  somewhat  extensive  knowledge  of 
physiology  is  a  sine  qua  non  for  the  thoroughly  trained  modern  psy- 
chologist goes  without  saying;  and  this  is  as  true  whether  there  be 
sympathy  or  not  with  the  modern  view,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  psy- 
chologist can  hardly  avoid  discussing  some  of  the  results  of  physiology ; 
and  such  discussions,  to  be  trustworthy  and  valuable,  must  be  based 
upon  knowledge.  And  here  is  not  meant  mere  book  knowledge,  but 
experimental  knowledge  gained  in  the  physiological  laboratory ;  other- 
wise, when  one  speaks  of  sensations,  reflex  action,  afferent  and  efferent 
nerves,  etc. ,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  he  can  have  any  adequate 
insight  into  the  objective  reality  of  these  phenomena.  It  is  not  intended 

a The  writer  prefers  this  term  to  "physiological  psychology,"  which  deals  often 
with  that  which  is  not  physiological,  but  pathological. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STHDY    OF   MAN.  29 

that  any  large  amount  of  time  be  required  for  purely  physiological 
laboratory  work.  A  term's  course — say  of  six  hours  a  week — might 
be  the  minimum.  In  this  case  it  is  assumed  that  the  student  has  a 
general  knowledge  of  human  and  comparative  physiology. 

If  the  above  requirements  are  necessary  for  one  who  proposes  to 
study  psycho-physical  questions,  it  may  be  inquired  further  as  to 
anatomical  knowledge.  That  a  proper  conception  of  physiology  is  not 
possible  without  anatomy  is  so  obvious  as  to  be  commonplace.  A 
general  dissection  of  the  body  and  special  dissection  of  the  sense  organs 
and  brain,  while  it  would  require  more  time  than  the  physiological 
course,  would  be  well  worth  the  extra  trouble,  since  it  is  preliminary 
foundation  work,  and  is  also  necessary  for  the  investigation  of  patho- 
logical clinical  cases,  some  of  which  are  of  the  highest  importance  for 
the  psycho-physicist.  For  this  and  other  reasons  an  elementary  course 
in  practical  histology  is  necessary.  Thus  it  is  not  clear  how  any 
student  without  practical  knowledge  of  coarser  and  finer  anatomy  can 
study  and  discuss  intelligently  questions  concerning  cerebral  locali- 
zation, cranial  and  spinal  nerves,  spinal  column,  medulla  oblongata, 
etc.  A  study  of  medicine  in  the  laboratory  and  clinic  sufficient  to 
gain  a  medical  way  of  looking  at  things  is  a  desideratum.  Such  train- 
ing also  is  very  valuable  for  students  of  criminology  or  other  patho- 
social  subjects. 

It  may  be  objected  that  many  of  the  facts  learned  in  such  a  course 
of  study  would  not  be  of  direct  utility,  but  this  could  be  urged  against 
almost  any  course  of  study.  The  value  of  such  negative  knowledge 
consists  in  serving  as  a  sort  of  ballast  in  aiding  the  student  in  avoid- 
ing mistakes. 

It  may  be  said  that  if  practical  courses  in  anatomy  and  histology  are 
requisites,  why  not  also  similar  courses  in  pathology  and  psychiatry. 
It  is  true  that  these  would  be  valuable;  but  there  must  be  a  limit. 
Perhaps  the  student  could  take  up  individual  pathological  cases  as 
they  came  in  the  course  of  his  work,  provided  he  has  the  physiological 
and  anatomical  knowledge  of  normal  man  before  mentioned.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  specialists  in  psycho-physics  will  read  the  writings 
of  specialists  in  physiology,  anatomy,  and  pathology  when  they  treat 
of  topics  that  bear  directly  on  his  own  studies.  To  read  such  literature, 
appreciate  the  points  of  discussion,  and  make  decisions  as  to  weight 
of  evidence  requires  at  least  a  practical  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
subjects. 

But  it  may  be  objected  that,  with  accurate  book  learning  and  good 
diagrams,  one  can  gain  sufficient  insight  without  going  to  the  trouble 
of  taking  the  practical  courses.  This  objection  is  perhaps  more  sesthet- 
ical  than  rational,  for  many  do  not  care  for  or  are  averse  to  dissection. 
It  is  a  well-known  difficulty,  common  to  medical  schools,  to  obtain 
faithfulness  in  dissection.  There  seems  to  be  a  natural  disinclination, 
not  only  of  the  nature  of  dread  or  disgust  that  may  appear  on  first 
entering  the  dissecting  room,  but  another  feeling,  that  is  easier  experi- 
enced than  described.  The  psycho-physicist  who  has  no  medical  train- 
ing is  very  liable  to  have  a  strong  disinclination  to  practical  work  in 
anatomy,  even  if  he  believes  in  its  utility  and  necessity.  Then  there 
is  sometimes  the  feeling  that  it  is  so  much  easier  and  saves  time  to  sit 
quietly  in  one's  own  room  and  study  the  books  and  diagrams. 

It  may  be  said  that  many  good  workers  in  psycho-physics  have  never 
had  this  preliminary  training.  This  is  true;  but  they  have  succeeded 
in  spite  of  this  fact.  As  is  well  known,  many  students  of  philosophy, 


30  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

having  become  dissatisfied  with  its  methods  and  results,  have  turned 
their  attention  to  experimental  psychology,  and  have  neither  time  nor 
opportunity  to  return  to  preliminary  work,  which  they  could  have 
done  had  they  known  beforehand  the  subsequent  direction  of  their 
studies. 

The  fact  that  the  majority  of  leaders  in  the  department  of  physio- 
logical psychology  in  Europe  were  previously  physicians  or  students 
of  medicine  indicates  the  direction  which  the  preliminary  training  in 
psycho-physics  should  take. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY  TO  DISEASE  AND  PHYSICAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  COLLEGE 

WOMEN.  a 

It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  tables 
below  are  only  tentative.  To  confirm  or  to  limit  such  conclusions,  a 
much  larger  number  of  facts  would  be  necessaiy. 

The  tables  are  given  in  averages.11 

The  measurements  of  weight,  lung  capacity,  height,  and  strength 
were  made  wholly  independent  of  the  medical  examination.  The 
number  of  students  in  all  is  1,486.  When  the  numbers  for  any  age 
are  very  small,  their  averages  are  omitted  in  the  tables. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Comparing  those  who  report  no  diseases  (Table  I)  with  those  having 
had  one  or  more  diseases  (Table  II),  we  find  that  those  with  no  diseases 
are  less  in  weight  but  greater  in  height  and  lung  capacity  and  about 
equal  in  strength  to  those  haying  had  one  or  more  diseases.  As  far  as 
these  data  go,  they  seem  to  indicate  that  strength  and  weight  are  not 
necessarily  signs  of  health,  or  rather  of  lack  of  susceptibility  to  disease. 

The  only  difference  between  those  having  any  disease  (Table  II) 
and  those  having  constitutional  diseases  is  that  the  latter  are  shorter  in 
stature  than  the  former,  but  in  strength,  weight,  and  lung  capacity 
there  is  no  marked  difference. 

Those  having  had  typhoid  fever  (Table  III)  show  a  superiority  in 
lung  capacity  and  strength,  but  are  inferior  in  weight  and  slightly  so 
in  height  to  those  having  diseases  in  general  (Table  II).  The  typhoid 
cases  compared  with  all  cases  of  specific  infectious  diseases  are  inferior 
in  weight,  height,  and  strength.  This  confirms  to  a  certain  extent  the 
remark  of  Hildebrand  that  delicate  slender  people  are  much  more 
subject  to  typhoid  fever  than  to  consumption. 

The  cases  of  infectious  diseases  (Table  IV)  are  distinctly  superior  in 
weight,  lung  capacity,  height,  and  strength  to  those  having  diseases  in 
general  (Table  11). 

On  the  other  hand,  those  having  hereditary  diseases  (Table  VII)  are 
inferior  in  weight  and  slightly  so  in  height  to  those  having  had  diseases 
in  general  (Table  II).  If  we  compare  the  cases  of  hereditary  diseases 
directly  with  those  of  specific  infectious  diseases  (IV),  the  contrast  is  still 
more  marked,  showing  the  hereditary  cases  to  be  inferior  in  weight, 
lung  capacity,  height,  and  strength  to  the  cases  of  infectious  diseases. 

Comparing  cases  of  scarlet  fever  (Table  XIII)  with  those  of  infec- 
tious diseases  (Table  IV)  in  general,  the  only  noticeable  difference  is 
that  the  former  are  inferior  in  height  to  the  latter. 

a  Article  by  writer  in  The  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal. 

bThe  data  from  which  the  tables  are  made  were  kindly  furnished  by  the  professor 
of  physical  culture  and  the  resident  physician  in  one  of  our  woman's  colleges. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY 

Those  having  diseases  of  the  digestive  system  (TablcTVT)  show  less 
weight  and  lung  capacity,  but  greater  height,  than  those  with  diseases 
in  general  (Table  II). 

Those  with  insufficient  respiration  (Table  XI)  have  less  weight  but 
(contrary  to  expectation)  greater  lung  capacity  and  height  than  those 
with  diseases  in  general  (Table  II). 

Cases  of  heart  murmurs  (Table  XII)  show  greater  weight,  lung 
capacity,  height,  and  strength  to  cases  of  diseases  in  general  (Table  II). 

Those  with  habitual  headache  (Table  IX)  are  inferior  in  weight, 
height,  lung  capacity,  and  strength  to  those  with  diseases  in  general 
(Table  II). 

Tables  of  susceptibility  to  disease  and  physical  development  of  college  women. 

ALL. 


462 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
28 

118 
116 
117 
112 
113 
112 
127 
107 
107 
117 

164 
160 
162 
159 
165 
151 
167 
165 
127 
160 

161 
161 
161 
160 
160 
160 
163 
166 
160 
163 

27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
26 
29 
22 
34 
19 

23 
23 
24 
23 
24 
24 
26 
20 
26 
31 

20 
21 
21 
20 
21 
21 
23 
20 
25 
27 

468 

260  

90 

32  

20 

12 

3  . 

2 

1 

TABLE  I.—  THOSE  REPORTING  NO  DISEASES. 

41  

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 

118 
119 
115 
117 
112 
116 

163 
166 
168 
164 
165 
167 

162 
162 
161 
164 
161 
159 

27 
27 
27 
28 
24 
26 

22 
24 
23 
25 
21 
26 

20 
21 
20 
22 
19 
23 

178  ...            

128 

73  

10 

10 

TABLE  II.—  ALL  HAVING  HAD  ONE  OR  MORE  DISEASES  (DISEASES  IN  GENERAL). 

61 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 

119 
118 
116 
118 
113 
109 

168 
162 
161 
162 
157 
159 

161 
161 
160 
161 
160 
160 

27 
27 
27 
27 
27 
26 

23 

23 
23 
23 

22 
24 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
22 

226 

280 

138          

51 

11 

TABLE  III.—  TYPHOID  FEVER. 

17  

18 
19 
20 

117 
117 
117 

169 
164 
171 

160 
162 
160 

28 
26 
27 

23 
23 

22 

20 
20 
21 

26 

11 

TABLE  IV.—  SPECIFIC  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 

28  

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

119 
118 
123 
120 
114 

163 
167 
176 
169 
169 

159 
163 
161 
162 
161 

27 
28 
28 
30 
29 

23 
22 
25 
23 
24 

20 
20 
21 
21 
21 

59  

106 

49  

28  

TABLE  V.—  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES. 

31... 

18 
19 
20 

119 
120 
118 

161 
164 
160 

151 
163 
161 

26 
25 
25 

24 
24 
23 

21 
20 
20 

22  

32. 

32 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


Tables  of  susceptibility  to  disease  and  physical  development  of  college  women — Continued. 
TABLE  VI.— DISEASES  OF  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 


Number. 

Nearest 
age. 

Weight. 

Lung  ca- 
pacity. 

Height. 

Strength  of— 

Arms. 

Right 
hand. 

Left 
hand. 

1 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

168 
117 
120 
145 
116 
112 

220 
165 
164 
151 
155 
167 

167 
162 
162 
160 
161 
161 

33 
27 
27 
25 
26 
26 

28 
23 
24 
23 
23 
23 

18 
20 
21 
20 
20 
20 

18  

59  

77 

42  

17  

TABLE  VII.— HEREDITARY  DISEASES. 


22 

17 

118 

157 

160 

28 

22 

20 

56 

18 

116 

168 

161 

25 

23 

20 

60 

19 

119 

163 

161 

26 

23 

21 

40 

20 

112 

163 

159 

25 

22 

20 

TABLE  VIII.— DISEASES  OF  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


18 

18 

120 

162 

164 

28 

25 

21 

59    

19 

115 

160 

160 

26 

24 

22 

12           

20 

113 

162 

162 

25 

22 

20 

TABLE  IX.— HABITUAL  HEADACHE. 


29 

18 

115 

162 

160 

26 

23 

21 

46   

19 

113 

155 

160 

24 

22 

20 

17 

20 

113 

171 

160 

26 

20 

19 

11 

21 

111 

147 

158 

24 

23 

22 

TABLE  X.— DISEASES  OF  RESPIRATORY  SYSTEM. 


18           

17 

121 

164 

162 

26 

22 

20 

57 

18 

120 

158 

161 

26 

24 

21 

84      

19 

114 

159 

160 

27 

23 

20 

48              -  . 

20 

119 

163 

161 

27 

23 

22 

12 

21 

111 

154 

160 

26 

22 

19 

TABLE  XI.— INSUFFICIENT  RESPIRATION. 


36              

17 

118 

170 

163 

27 

22 

21 

95 

18 

116 

164 

162 

27 

23 

20 

119      

19 

116 

162 

161 

27 

22 

20 

JS2             ... 

10 

116 

164 

160 

27 

23 

20 

32 

21 

112 

162 

160 

27 

23 

21 

TABLE  XII.— HAVING  HEART  MURMURS. 


21     . 

17 

125 

180 

164 

24 

23 

20 

61 

18 

117 

167 

162 

28 

23 

21 

62  ,  

19 

117 

166 

162 

28 

24 

20 

23  

20 

122 

170 

168 

27 

24 

22 

18     .         .. 

21 

112 

175 

162 

26 

23 

21 

TABLE  XIII.— SCARLET  FEVER. 


11 

17 

122 

166 

158 

30 

23 

20 

19 

18 

118 

166 

164 

27 

22 

20 

22  .         

19 

120 

170 

161 

26 

24 

21 

10 

20 

120 

161 

162 

30 

26 

23 

The  weight  is  in  pounds,  the  lung  capacity  in  cubit 
strength  in  kilograms. 


incbes,  the  height  in  centimeters,  and  the. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


33 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  CHATTANOOGA  SCHOOL  CHILDREN.* 

We  shall  add  here  a  few  further  measurements  of  school  children 
of  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  AVe  regret  the  number  is  not  larger. 

We  have  given  some  conclusions  especially  as  indicating  a  purely 
experimental  stage  of  investigation.  It  might  be  asked,  for  instance, 
what  relation  could  there  be  between  color  of  eyes  and  weight  and 
strength,  etc.  We  can  not  say,  but  if  we  had  larger  numbers,  further 
subdivisions  could  be  made  and  other  factors  that  might  have  influ- 
ence excluded  until  finally  the  relation,  if  real,  could  be  determined. 

To  neglect  every  relation  that  a  priori  seems  improbable  is  not 
consistent  with  the  history  of  investigation,  for  it  has  happened 
that  some  of  the  most  unsuspected  lelations  have  turned  out  through 
further  inquiry  to  be  of  great  importance. 

Chattanooga  school  children. — In  this  study  of  the  Chattanooga 
children  is  recorded  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  measurement  of 
school  children  of  the  South. 

Measurements  were  taken  of  weight,  height,  strength,  and  sensi- 
bility to  pain.  The  teachers  reported  also  as  to  whether  the  pupil  was 
bright,  dull,  or  average  in  general,  and  as  to  the  standing  of  the  pupil 
in  particular  studies.  In  order  that  a  fair  estimate  as  to  the  ability  of 
the  pupil  might  be  made,  a  pupil  was  marked  average  whenever  there 
was  am-  doubt. 

The  date  of  birth,  order  of  birth,  and  color  of  hair  and  63^68  were 
also  noted.  The  children  were  divided  into  blondes,  mediums,  and 
brunettes.  If  such  characteristics  should  be  related  closely  to  any  of 
the  other  data,  it  might  in  this  way  be  ascertained. 

Chattanooga  schoolgirls. — Schoolgirls  in  Chattanooga  are  slightly 
taller  and  heavier  for  most  ages  than  schoolgirls  in  Washington. 
(Tables  1  and  2.) 

TABLE  1. —  Washington  schoolgirl*. h 


Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

754 

Inches. 
47 

Pounds. 
49 

833 

14 

Inches. 
60 

Pounds. 
93 

883 

9 

49 

54 

655....  

15 

62 

100 

939 

10 

51 

58 

450 

16 

62 

105 

931  .                  

11 

53 

64 

323  

17 

63 

110 

876 

12 

56 

73 

151  

18 

63 

111 

966  

13 

58 

82 

The  summer  born  are  slightly  less  in  height  and  strength,  and  have 
less  sensibility  to  pain  than  the  winter  born  for  most  ages.  (Tables  3 
and  4.) 

Mentally  considered  (Table  5). — The  first  born  are  slightly  superior 
to  the  second  born.  Those  born  in  winter  are  superior  to  those  born 
in  summer. 

There  is  no  special  difference  between  blondes  and  brunettes. 

Chattanooga  schoolboys. — The  Chattanooga  boys  are  superior  in 
weight  and  height  to  the  boys  in  Washington.  (Tables  6  and  7.)  This 
accords  with  the  general  impression  that  Southern  men  are  taller 
than  Northern  men. 

aProf.  William  E.  Ashcroft  and  Superintendent  Dr.  A.  T.  Barrett  kindly  made 
the  measurements. 

bSee  "Experimental  study  of  children," 

S.  Doc.  400 3 


34 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


Those  born  in  summer  are  very  slightly  inferior  in  weight,  height, 
and  strength  to  those  born  in  winter.  (Tables  8  and  9.)  This  not  does 
agree  (as  in  the  case  of  girls  above,  tables  3  and  4)  with  Combe's  results  in 
Switzerland,  who  found  children  born  in  summer  to  be  taller  for  their 
age.  As  the  superiority  of  winter  children  in  Chattanooga  is  very 
slight,  it  may  be  due  either  to  the  relatively  small  number  measured 
or  to  difference  of  climate,  it  being  severer  in  Switzerland  during  the 
winter  than  in  Chattanooga. 

Mentally  considered. — The  first-born  boys  are  slightly  superior 
mentally  to  both  the  second  born  and  later  born.  (Table  10.)  Boas 
found  the  first  born  to  excel  the  later  born  in  both  stature  and  weight. 
This  coincides  with  results  of  most  investigations,  showing  that  superi- 
ority of  body  usually  goes  with  superiority  of  mind.  Thus  the  children 
of  the  nonlaboring  (professional  and  mercantile)  classes  of  Washington 
not  only  show  a  higher  percentage  of  mental  ability,  but  are  physically 
superior  to  those  of  the  laboring  classes. 

Chattanooga  school  children. 
TABLE  2.— WHITE  GIRLS. 


Number  of  pupil*             ^a^ 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

Strength  of— 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Right 
hand. 

Left 
hand. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

i 
10                                                          !                8 

Inches. 
47 
50 

62 
54 
54 

58 
61 
62 
62 

Pounds. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

13 
14 
14 

18 

20 
21 
23 
23 

Kilo- 
grams. 
9 
11 

13 
13 
16 

18 
19 
21 
20 

Grams. 

Grams. 

21                                    .     .                 '                9 

30  '              10 

(5) 
2,540 
(14) 
2,315 
(31) 
2,520 
(26) 
2,550 
2,687 
2,460 
2,  653 

(5) 
2,  830 
(14) 
2,  415 
(31) 
2,590 
(26) 
2,445 
2,642 
2,463 
2,561 

30  11 

°a 
<$ 

92 
100 
101 
101 

49                                                                     12 

43...                                                                13 

44                                                                     14 

35  !             15 

13  16 

TABLE  3.— SUMMER  BORN. 


4 

g 

Ft.  in. 
3  9 

10 

3 

8  

9 

4  5 

12 

12 

13  .'. 

10 

4  4 

14 

13 

2  400 

8,1 

14 

11 

4  6 

(7,> 

15 

14 

(4) 
2  675 

(4) 

2  537 

27... 

12 

4  9 

(15) 
73 

17 

15 

,<$ 

(14) 
2  907 

26 

13 

4  11 

91 

20 

18 

2  633 

2  561 

23  

14 

5  2 

99 

21 

19 

2,755 

2  577 

16  

15 

5  2 

99 

22 

21 

2  604 

2  675 

8 

16 

5  2 

100 

24 

20 

2  368 

2  275 

3 

17 

5  2 

117 

20 

19 

2  532 

3  016 

TABLE  4.— WINTER  BORN. 


6  

8 

4  1 

12 

10 

13  

9 

4  2 

12 

11 

15 

10 

4  5 

14 

12 

2  775 

2  725 

15... 

11 

4  6 

<a 

14 

14 

(9) 
t  266 

'(9) 
2  366 

22 

12 

4  9 

82 

19 

17 

2  351 

2  329 

17  

13 

4  11 

(6) 
82 

20 

18 

i§) 

2  362 

'(8) 
2  193 

21.  . 

14 

5  1 

97 

21 

19 

2  oil 

2  712 

18 

15 

5  3 

105 

23 

2i 

2*306 

2  236 

5 

16 

5  3 

103 

24 

20 

3  110 

3*020 

A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


35 


Chattanooga  public  schools. 
TABLE  5.— GIRLS. 


Number. 

a 

bo 
•c 
m 

Average. 

1 

Number. 

I 

Average. 

1 

89 

First  born 

P.ct. 

28 

P.ct. 
65 

P.ct. 

7 

135  .. 

Winter  born  .  . 

P.ct. 
34 

P.ct. 
60 

P.ct. 
6 

5H 

28 

61 

11 

124 

Blonds 

27 

62 

11 

127 

Later  born 

34 

51 

15 

81  

Medium  

34 

63 

13 

139 

Summer  bom 

29 

55 

16 

56 

Brunettes 

30 

55 

15 

Washington  boys. 
TABLE  6.— WHITE.' 


Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

787 

8 

Inches. 
48 

Pounds. 
61 

926. 

13 

Inches. 
57 

Pounds. 
79 

878  

9 

50 

56 

784  

14 

59 

88 

930 

10 

52 

61 

528 

15 

-  62 

101 

862 

11 

53 

66 

345 

16 

64 

114 

986 

12 

55 

73 

Chattanooga  school  children. 
TABLE  7.— WHITE  BOYS. 


10 

8 

Inches. 
49 

Potmds. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 
(11 

17  . 

9 

15 

47  

13 

57 

8< 

(6) 

35 

14 

60 

9< 

28... 

10 

52 

69 

(12 

39 

11 

54 

77 

16 

15 

63 

10- 

(8) 

12 

16 

63 

11, 

35  

12 

57 

79 

»See  "Experimental  Study  of  Children." 
TABLE  8.— WINTER  BORN. 


Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

Strength  of— 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Right 
hand. 

Left 
hand. 

Right 
temple. 

Left 
temple. 

5.. 

8 
9 

10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 

Ft.  in. 
4      1 
4      2 

4      5 
4      6 

4      8    . 
4    10 
5      1 
5      4 
5      4 

Pounds 

Kilo- 
grams. 
14 
14 

16 
23 

21 
24 
27 
28 
33 

Kilo- 
grams. 
11 
12 

13 
19 

20 
20 
25 

27 
28 

Grams. 

Grams. 

4 

15.. 

(5) 
71 

(B 
('% 

92 
98 
106 
105 

(5) 
3,090 
(10) 
2.783 

2,581 
2,659 
2,443 
2,868 
2,576 

(5) 
3,080 
(10) 
3,  072 

2,509 
2.746 
2,511 
3,  162 
2,  612 

25  

22 

23  

18. 

8 

4  

TABLE  9.— SUMMER  BORN. 


5  

8 

4  1 

14 

13 

12 

9 

4  3 

14 

18 

•»(&> 

(1) 
2  700 

13  

10 

4  4 

16 

15 

(1) 

3  350 

(1) 
2  goo 

13 

11 

4  6 

19 

17 

.»  700 

2000 

12  

12, 

(6) 
80 

19 

17 

2  566 

2  894 

21 

13 

4  10 

87 

21 

21 

3  064 

Q  AQ7 

17  

14 

4  11 

92 

24 

23 

2*890 

2  950 

8.. 

15 

5  2 

(5) 
103 

30 

OQ 

3  016 

30Q1 

8  

16 

5  3 

108 

34 

2*512 

2  415 

36 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

TABLE  10.— BOYS. 


Number. 

a 
& 

f-t 

PQ 

Average. 

I 

Number. 

1 

Average. 

1 

65 

First  born  .  .. 

P.ct. 
33 

P.ct. 
50 

P.ct. 
17 

124 

Winter  born  

P.ct. 
37 

P.ct. 
44 

P.ct. 
19 

59 

Second  born 

35 

54 

11 

93 

Blondes 

38 

53 

9 

105 

Later  born    

32 

56 

12 

91  

Medium  

30 

54 

16 

108 

Summer  born 

29 

56 

15 

50 

Brunettes  

30 

52 

8 

Those  born  in  winter  are  slightly  superior  mentally  to  those  born  in 
summer.  (Table  10.) 

Piiberty  and  sensibility  to  pain. — Both  boys  and  girls  (Table  11) 
are  slightly  less  sensitive  to  pain  after  puberty  than  before.  It  was 
found  in  the  study  of  the  Washington  children  a  that  they  were  more 
sensitive  to  locality  and  heat  on  the  skin  before  puberty  than  after. 
Thus  it  seems  probable  that  our  senses  in  general  are  more  acute 
before  than  after  puberty.  This  accords  with  the  general  conclusion 
that  sensibility  to  pain  decreases  with  age.b 

TABLE  11. — Puberty  and  sensibility  to  pain,  Chattanooga  children. 


Puberty. 

X, 

Number 
of  per- 
sons. 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Right  tem- 
poral 
muscle 
pressure. 

Left  tem- 
poral 
muscle 
pressure. 

Boys: 
Before  puberty  

26 
105 

50 
117 

Grams. 
2,820 
2,  852 

2,'480 
2,589 

Grams. 
2,837 
2,881 

2,584 
2,543 

After  puberty 

Before  puberty  

After  puberty 

TABLE  VL— COLORED  BOYS. 


Number. 

« 

V 

*5 

Q 

Number. 

r 

m 

I 

"3 

Q 

131... 

First  born  

P.ct. 
41 

P.ct. 
40 

P.ct. 
19 

27  

Black  skin  

P.ct. 
33 

P.ct. 
48 

P.ct. 
19 

69. 

Second  born  

37 

38 

25 

Brown  skin  . 

33 

48 

19 

123 

Later  born 

37 

56 

7 

156 

Light-brown  skin 

36 

44 

20 

66  

Summer  born  

42 

31 

27 

174  

Yellow  skin  

33 

46 

21 

193  

Winter  born     

34 

45 

21 

TABLE  13.— COLORED  GIRLS. 


127... 

First  born  

33        51 

16 

i     45 

Black  skin  

40 

44 

1 

88  

Second  born.  . 

39         44 

14 

1     87 

Brown  skin  

41 

45 

1 

199 

Later  born 

33        50 

17 

207 

Dark-brown  skin 

33 

46 

2 

62  

Summer  born  

30         45 

25 

!  220  

Yellow  skin  

35 

54 

1 

239  

Winter  born  

31         53 

16 

1 

"Experimental  Study  of  Children,  page  1007. 
b  Experimental  Study  of  Children,  page  1113, 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


37 


Colored  boys. — The  first  born  are  slightly  superior  mentally  to 
both  the  second  and  later  born.  (Table  12.)  There  appears  to  be  no. 
relation  between  different  degrees  of  color  of  skin  and  mental  ability 
among  the  boys. 

Colored  girls. — The  second-born  colored  girls  show  a  slightly  greater 
mental  ability  than  both  the  first  born  and  later  born.  (Table  13.) 

The  summer  born  show  a  slight  superiority  mentally  to  the  winter 
born.  (Table  13.) 

Those  with  light  skin  (light  brown  and  yellow)  show  the  lowest  per- 
centage of  mental  ability.  (Table  13.)  This  is  not  what  we  would 
expect  from  general  impressions.  But  general  impressions  are  some- 
times based  on  conspicuous  exceptions. 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  GIRLS  IN  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  AND  OF  UNIVERSITY 

STUDENTS.  a 

It  is  comparatively  recent  that  scientific  method  has  been  applied  to 
the  mental  side  of  man.  That  mind  and  feeling  could  be  measured 
quantitively  was  once  generally  doubted  or  ridiculed;  but  such  opposi- 
tion has  ceased  almost  entirely.  Opinion  and  speculation  are  often 
entitled  to  as  much  respect  as  facts,  but  when  they  go  so  far  as  to 
oppose  or  ignore  facts,  they  create  a  suspicion  of  their  own  weakness. 
The  value  of  opinion  varies  according  to  first-hand  knowledge. 

There  is  a  somewhat  prevalent  idea  that  investigation  of  mind  tends 
to  weaken  the  basis  of  morality,  but  there  is  very  little  evidence  of 
this.  Morality  is  more  a  matter  of  habit  and  early  training.  Some 
of  the  worst  criminals  are  theoretically  sound  in  their  doctrines,  but 
they  have  not  formed  good  habits,  and  so  are  in  contradiction  with 
themselves. 

We  give  herewith  some  recent  measurements  of  young  women  in 
private  schools  and  of  university  students.  The  numbers  of  individu- 
als are  not  as  large  as  one  could  desire,  but  we  trust  that  others  will 
take  up  the  work;  increasing  the  number,  so  that  finally  the  results  of 
such  studies  may  come  to  possess  a  high  degree  of  certainty. 

V 

TABLE  I. —  Washington  schoolgirls. 


Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight. 

754 

g 

Inches. 
47 

Pound*. 
49 

883 

9 

49 

54 

939                                      * 

10 

51 

58 

931                                                                                     

11 

53 

64 

876 

12 

56 

73 

966                                                             

13 

58 

82 

833                                                                                              

14 

60 

93 

655 

15 

62 

100 

450                                                                        

16 

62 

105 

323 

17 

63 

110 

151.                                    

18 

63 

111 

MEASUREMENTS   OF   GIRLS   IN    PRIVATE    SCHOOLS. 

Comparing  girls  in  private  schools  with  Washington  and  Chat- 
tanooga schoolgirls,  we  find  them  heavier,  taller,  much  stronger,  and 
much  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  girls  in  public  schools.  .  (Table  I,  II, 


a  Article  by  writer  in  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Vol.  cxlv,  No.  5, 
pp.  127-129,  August  1,  1901. 


38 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


and  III.)  It  would  appear  that  the  comforts,  refinements,  and  perhaps 
luxuries  of  modern  civilization,  while  beneficial  to  physical  develop- 
ment, tend  to  increase  sensitiveness  to  pain.  This  accords  with  our 
previous  measurements  of  Washington  school  children,  where  it  was 
shown  that  children  of  the  nonlaboring  classes  (mercantile  and  profes- 
sional) were  superior  in  circumference  of  head,  in  height,  sitting 
height,  and  weight,  but  more  sensitive  to  heat  and  locality  on  the  skin 
than  children  of  the  laboring  classes;  that  is,  a  superior  physical 
development  usually  seems  to  be  accompanied  with  greater  acuteness 
of  the  sensibilities. 

TABLE  II. — Chattanooga  schoolgirls. 


Strength  of— 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Number  of  pupils. 

Nearest 
age. 

Average 
height. 

Average 
weight 

Right 
hand. 

Left 
hand. 

Right 
temporal 
muscle. 

Left 
temporal 
muscle. 

10 

8 
9 

10 
11 
12 

13 
14 
15 
16 

Inches. 

47 
50 

52 
54 
54 

58 
61 
62 
62 

Pounds. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

13 

14 
14 

18 

20 
21 
23 
23 

Kilo- 
grams. 
9 
11 

13 
13 
16 

18 
19 
21 
20 

Grams. 

Grams. 

21                                         

30 

(5) 
2,540 
(14) 
2,315 
(31) 
2,520 
(26) 
2,550 
2,  687 
2,460 
2,  653 

(5) 
2,830 
(14) 
2,415 
(31) 
2,590 
(26) 
2,445 
2,  642 
2,  463 
2,561 

30 

'(11)70 

(3%7 
(23) 
92 
100 
101 
101 

49                                    .... 

43  

44 

35 

13  

»  Figures  in  parentheses  designate  number  from  which  average  is  made. 
TABLE  III. — Girls  in  private  schools. a 


Strength  of— 

Cephalic 
index. 

Sensibility 
to  pain. 

Number  of  pupils.  . 

Near- 
est 
age. 

Aver- 
age 
weight. 

Aver- 
age 
height. 

Right 
hand.  , 

Left 
hand. 

Dol- 
icho. 

Messo. 

Brachy. 

Right 
tempo- 
ral. 

Left 
tempo- 
ral. 

3            ..  . 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

Pounds. 
61 
71 
77 
94 
106 
115 
117 
114 
113 
121 

Inches. 

Kilo- 
grams. 
14 
17 
23 
31 
37 
38 
45 
45 
54 
61 

Kilo- 
grams. 
12 
16 
21 
27 
34 
34 
41 
43 
46 
58 

1 

2 
5 

Grams. 
625 
708 
525 
730 
868 
773 
934 
1,317 
1,250 
900 

Grams. 
565 
578 
487 
716 
933 
753 
1,004 
1,353 
1,905 
900 

6  

1 

A 

1 

4 

7 
8 

! 

l 

4  

57 
62 
63 
64 
64 
65 
65 
64 

11 

1 
1 
5 
2 
3 
1 

9 
1 

7 

12 

8 
2 
2 

6 

19  

23 

14 

9  .... 

3 

"These  measurements  were  kindly  made  for  the  writer  by  Misses  A.  B.  Jones  and  A.  E.  Palmer, 
teachers  in  the  schools. 

Girls  in  private  schools  are  less  sensitive  to  locality  on  the  skin,  but 
more  sensitive  to  pain  before  puberty  than  after  puberty.  (Table  IV.) 
It  is  difficult  to  sa}^  why  this  sense  of  locality  is  less  before  puberty,  as 
the  difference  is  well  marked.  There  seems  to  be  a  distinct  difference 
here  between  the  pain  sensibility  and  the  locality  sensibility. 

Compared  with  girls  in  Washington  schools,  girls  in  private  schools 
are,  contrary  to  expectation,  much  less  sensitive,  both  before  and  after 
puberty,  to  locality  on  the  skin.  (Table  IV.) 


A    PLAN    FOK    THR    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


39 


TABLE  IV. — Sensibilities  of  girls  in  private  and  jwblic  schools. 


Number 
of 
pupils. 

Sensibility  to  lo- 
cality. 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Right 
wrist. 

Left 
wrist. 

Right 
temporal. 

Left 
temporal. 

Girls  (private  schools): 
Before  pubertv 

14 
80 

186 
362 
548 

50 
117 

mm. 
18.7 
17.0 

14.5 
15.0 
14.9 

mm. 
19.2 
16.6 

13.8 
13.8 
13.9 

Grams. 
664 
971 

Grams. 
593 

994 

After  puberty  

Girls  (Washington): 
Before  pubertv 

After  puberty  

All  ages        .             ....                     

Girls  (Chattanooga): 
Before  puberty  

2,480 
2,589 

2,584 
2,543 

After  pubertv 

UNIVERSITY   WOMEN,  EASTERN    STATES  (TABLE  v). 

Those  with  poor  nutrition,  when  compared  with  others,  are  inferior 
in  weight,  sitting  height,  strength;  in  distance  between  orbits,  corners 
of  eyes,  and  from  crown  to  chin,  and  in  distance  between  zygomatic 
arches;  in  short,  they  are  physically  inferior  in  general. 

Comparing  the  blondes  with  the  brunettes,  the  blondes  are  inferior 
in  all  measurements  except  in  the  distance  of  crown  to  chin  and  dis- 
tance between  zygomatic  arches.  The  blondes  are  less  sensitive  to 
pain.  This  is  in  accord  with  the  investigation  of  this  particular  point 
l)\  Miss  Carman,  in  her  study  of  the  schools  in  Saginaw,  Mich.a  In 
general  the  blondes  are  inferior  physically  to  the  brunettes. 

TABLE  V. —  University  women. b 


, 

•£ 

GC 

1 

1 

s 

1 

!>, 

JH   JJ 

P 

1 

9 

II 

fc 

<5 

> 

< 

Nutrition:- 

Good               

19 

21 

125 

143 

Fair 

10 

21 

126 

Poor  _  

5 

23 

114 

157 

Complexion: 

Blonde 

g 

20 

116 

153 

Medium  .        

18 

22 

128 

145 

Brunette 

8 

21 

129 

156 

Length  of  — 

1 

1 

#4 

~* 

,c 

43 

J3 

V  3 

s 

s 

J5 

Nutrition: 

Good 

57 

57 

62             i 

Fair  

56 

56 

64            < 

Poor 

56 

56 

63            ( 

Complexion: 

Blonde  

56 

56 

62  1          < 

Medium 

57 

57 

63            ( 

Brunette  

57 

57 

63  1          ( 

^ 

£1 

I 

0 

Strength 
of— 

Distance 
between— 

| 

0) 

^, 

"3°  • 

^ 

t* 

^  T3 

—J 

*"*  ^    :     — 

b3 

fcn 

e 

he  ^ 

*^    g 

-^  tii'S 

"•'  >.        -^ 

8 

1 

.„  2 

^ 

ST- 

y  c        i 

43 

' 
161 

89 

77 

64 

99 

29 

234 

58 

164 

89 

79 

64 

100 

28 

235 

57 

163 

88 

66 

57 

97 

23 

230 

68 

158 

88 

76 

65 

95 

29 

230 

15 

162 

89 

75 

62 

101 

29 

236 

66 

163 

89 

79 

64 

99 

27 

233 

Least  sensibil- 
ity to  pain. 


14  2,285  I  2,242 

16  1,945  I  1,867 

14  2,670  2,315 

14  2,884  2,315 

14  2,276  2,109 

15  1,931  1.918 


129 
128 
125 

126 
129 
126 


'Experimental  Study  of  Children,  ]>.  1114. 

b Measurements  made  by  Frances  A.  Kellor  of  Chicago  University  and  Emily  Dunning,  M.  D.,  of 
New  York. 


40  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

These  comparisons  from  Table  V  have  been  given  somewhat  in 
detail;  but  of  course  the  number  of  persons  examined  is  too  small  to 
give  weight  to  the  conclusions. 

INTERPRETATION    OF    PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 

We  hear  a  great  deal  at  present  about  the  supposed  significance  of 
physical  characteristics,  anomalies,  and  the  like,  in  the  face,  head, 
mouth,  and  hands,  and  not  a  few  earnest  people  seem  to  attach  mi  ch 
importance  to  many  such  signs;  but  the  world  of  science  has  as  yet 
shown  little  confidence  in  these  interpretations  of  the  signs.  One, 
however,  should  hold  himself  open  to  all  possible  truth.  But  it  is  evi- 
dent that  if  any  of  those  physical  signs  are  to  be  proved  significant, 
it  must  be  done  by  patient  observations  on  a  large  number  of  people, 
faithfully  recorded.  People  must  not  be  selected  for  such  purpose, 
and  all  exceptions  must  be  carefully  noted  and  studied.  Until  this  is 
done  few  serious  investigators  can  be  expected  to  place  much  weight 
on  conclusions  as  to  personality  drawn  from  pt^sical  characteristics. 

UNIVERSITY    STUDENTS,    WESTERN    STATE.         TABLE    VI.) 

As  a  great  majority  of  students  have  reached  adult  age,  we  will 
compare  the  students  in  general  as  to  sensibility  to  pain. 

The  first  born  (men  and  women)  are  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  the 
second  born.  This  accords  with  the  investigation  by  Miss  Carman, 
who  found  that,  in  general,  sensitiveness  to  pain  decreases  in  order  of 
birth. 

The  second  born  (men  and  women)  are  less  sensitive  to  pain  than  the 
later  born.  This  is  not  in  accord  with  the  results  of  the  investigation 
just  mentioned.  But  in  new  lines  of  inquiry  with  small  numbers,  ten- 
tative contradictions  are  what  might  be  expected.  It  only  shows  the 
necessity  of  investigation  of  large  numbers  if  more  than  preliminary 
results  are  to  be  obtained.  Yet,  even  with  small  numbers,  the  probable 
truth  has  often  been  indicated. 

The  dolichocephalic  (women  and  men)  are  less  sensitive  to  pain  than 
the  brachycephalic.  University  women  are  much  more  sensitive  to 
pain  than  university  men;  this  accords  with  pur  previous  studies,* 
in  which  women  were  found  to  be  more  sensitive  to  pain  than  men. 
In  the  investigation  of  the  Washington  school  children,  girls  were 
found  to  be  more  sensitive  to  locality  on  the  skin  than  boys.b  It 
would  seem,  then,  probable  that  in  the  female  sex  there  is  greater 
acuteness  in  sensibilities  than  in  the  male  sex;  but  this  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  power  of  endurance  in  women. 

a  Psychological  Review,  March,  1899. 

b  Experimental  Study  of  Children,  p.  1005. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


41 


TABLE  VI.—  University  (Western  State).* 
MEN. 


Num- 
ber of 
stud- 
ents. 

Sensibility  to  pain. 

Right 
temporal. 

Left 
temporal. 

13 
23 
22 
19 
13 
21 
14 
34 
10 
58 

Blonde  . 

Qrams. 
1,317 
,397 
,160 
,311 
,427 
,201 
,512 
,183 
,340 
,289 

Grams. 
1,366 
,211 
,150 
,246 
,471 
,083 
,489 
,190 
,262 
,258 

Brunette 

Medium  

First  born 

Second  born  

Later  born                                                             ...     .        

Dolichocephalic 

Mesocephalic  

Brachycephalic 

WOMEN. 


8 

Blonde  ,  

1 
|               926 

823 

8 

Brunette  .  .    .                        

i               885 

848 

22 

Medium 

1               786 

851 

3 

i               825 

734 

12 

Second  born 

!               863 

991 

16 

Later  born 

i               800 

766 

7 

Dolichocephalic            

820 

948 

15 

Mesocephalic 

926 

894 

16 

Brachycephalic  

817 

804 

38 

836 

845 

I 

»  These  measurements  were  kindly  furnished  the  writer  by  Prof.  B.  J.  Hawthorne. 

TYPES  OF  CHILDREN  IN  GERMANY.* 

Out  of  6,758,827  school  children  in  Germany15  Virchow  finds,  as 
shown  in  Table  I,  that  more  than  half  of  the  children  belong  to  the 
mixed  type,  but  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  rest  belong  to  the  blonde 
type: 

TABLE  I. 


Type. 

Number  of 
children. 

Per  cent. 

Blonde 

2  149  027 

31  80 

Brunette  

949,822 

14.05 

Mixed 

3,  659,  978 

54  15 

Total.           ..                  

6,  758,  827 

100  00 

Considering  the  different  colors  of  hair,  as  shown  in  Table  II,  we 
see  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  children  have  blonde  hair: 

TABLE  II. 


/                                        Color  of  hair. 

Number  of 
children. 

Per  cent. 

Blonde  hair 

4  617  546 

68  02 

Brown  hair  . 

1,988,966 

29.42 

Black  hair 

133,864 

1.98 

Red  hair 

17  499 

25 

a  Article  by  writer  in  Pediatrics,  Vol.  VII,  No.  11. 

b  Virchow,  Arch.  f.  Anthrop.,  Bd.  XVI.,  S.  275-475,  1885-86. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


COLOR   OF    EYES,  HAIR,    AND    SKIN    OF    CHILDREN    IN    GERMANY. 

White  children  with  blue  eyes  are  the  most  frequent;  they  are  about 
one-half  as  frequent  as  children  with  blonde  hair.  Brown  eyes  con- 
stitute the  smallest  number,  not  over  a  fourth  of  the  whole  number. 

TABLE  III. 


Color  of  eyes. 

Number  of 
children. 

Percent. 

Blue  eyes                                                  

2,673  539 

39.65 

Brown  eyes 

1  839  214 

27  21 

2  242  702 

33  18 

As  to  the  color  of  the  skin  we  find  the  percentage  of  white  and 
brown  skin  as  given  in  Table  IV. 


TABLE  IV. 


Color  of  skin. 


White  skin. 
Brown  skin 


Number  of 
children. 


6,184,406 
•  571, 628 


Per  cent. 


91.50 

8.45 


The  majority  of  those  with  black  hair  have  a  brown  skin  (Table  V). 

As  we  go  west  and  south  in  Germany  the  number  of  blondes  lessens. 
They  are  the  most  frequent  in  the  north. 

If  we  take  the  officials  of  Germany,  who  belong  to  the  well-to-do 
classes,  we  find  the  largest  number  of  blondes,  being  40  or  more  per- 
cent, among  their  children.  In  the  North  Friesian  Islands  the  per- 
centage of  blondes  is  52.81. 

Among  the  children  of  the  Government  officials,  or  the  well-to-do 
classes,  less  than  10  per  cent  are  brunettes. 

In  general,  there  is  a  relatively  greater  number  of  blondes  in  the 
country  than  in  the  city. 

In  the  mixed  type  blue  eyes  are  the  most  influenced. 

One-third  of  all  the  German  school  children  have  gray  eyes.  Another 
fact  is  that  blonde  hair  prevails  in  the  mixed  combinations,  reaching 
an  average  of  36.41  per  cent. 

Those  with  brown  hair,  who  are  not  brunettes,  are  a  branch  of  the 
brunettes  rather  than  of  the  blondes.  The  hair  of  women  seems  to 
turn  dark  faster  than  that  of  men. 

TABLE  V. — Percentages. 


Blue 
eyes, 
blonde 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Blue 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Blue 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
brown 
skin. 

Gray 
eyes, 
blonde 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Gray 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Gray 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
brown 
skin. 

Gray 

eyes, 
black 
hair, 
brown 
skin^ 

Brown 

blonde 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

Germany 

31  80 

6  20 

1  41 

23  41 

7  05 

1  91 

0  66 

13 

North  Friesian  Islands  

52  81 

6  50 

.89 

23.  22 

3.33 

.50 

.13 

6.37 

Prussia,  4,127,766  persons: 
From  6  to  8  years  of  age  

35.04 

5.38 

1 

25.  32 

5.47 

1.28 

.37 

14.56 

Over  8  to  10  years  of  age  
Over  10  to  12  vears  of  age 

38.33 
34  39 

6.13 
6  48 

1.34 
1  25 

23.79 
24  19 

6.13 
6.73 

1.65 
1  61 

.46 
44 

12.49 
11.99 

Over  12  to  14  years  of  age 

31  89 

5  96 

1 

25  57 

7  37 

1  44 

37 

11  74 

To  14  years  of  age  

38.59 

6.11 

1.27 

24.09 

6.20 

1.58 

.45 

12.65 

Over  14  years  of  age  

26.  25 

6  32 

1.05 

24.  43 

9.63 

1.91 

.58 

10.19 

A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


TABLE  V. — Percentages — Continued. 


Brown 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Brown 
eyes, 
brown 
hair, 
brown 
skin. 

Brown 
eyes, 
black 
hair, 
brown 
skin. 

Blue 
eyes, 
red 
hair, 
white 
skin, 

Gray 
eyes, 
red 
hair, 
white 
skin. 

Brown 
eyes, 
red 
hair, 
white 
skin, 

Other 
com- 
bina- 
tions. 

Whole 
number. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

& 

14. 

15. 

Germany  

9.70 

3.14 

1.21 

0.10 

0.07 

0.06 

0.28 

6,758  827 

North  Friesian  Islands  

3.29 

.93 

.55 

.46 

.09 

.84 

2  369 

Prussia,  4,127,766  persons: 
From  6  to  8  years  of  age  

8.32 

2.18 

.58 

.12 

.10 

.08 

.20 

546,949 

Over  8  to  10  years  of  age  

8.02 

2.47 

.73 

.11 

.08 

.06 

.21 

2,156  025 

Over  10  to  12  years  of  age  
Over  12  to  14  years  of  age  

8.88 
10.42 

2.59 
2.69 

.84 
.91 

.13 
.13 

.11 

.11 

.07 
.07 

.30 
.33 

692,839 
190,583 

To  14  years  of  age  .  . 

8.34 

2.45 

.75 

12 

.09 

.07 

24 

4  070  923 

Over  14  years  of  age 

13  01 

3  69 

1  73 

08 

09 

09 

98 

56  843 

From  an  examination  of  Table  5  it  will  be  seen  that  the  darkening 
of  the  hair  is  very  slight  in  the  pure  brown  type,  and  in  the  mixed 
form  with  gray  eyes  it  hardly  appears,  at  least  during  school  days. 
But  darkening  of  the  hair  is  very  frequent  in  the  pure  blonde  type, 
where  it  reaches  the  highest  per  cent. 

HAIR   OF    OTHER    NATIONALITIES    COMPARED   WITH    HAIR. OF    GERMANS. 

In  comparing  the  results  of  observations  of  school  children  of  other 
nations  the  following  table  is  made  from  Virchow's  data.  A  striking 
feature  is  the  small  number  of  blondes  in  Switzerland.  This  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  (Virchow)  that  the  country  districts  were  not  studied. 

TABLE  VI. 


Country. 

Number  of 
school, 
children. 

Blondes. 

Bru- 
nettes. 

Blonde 
hair. 

Brown 
and  black 
hair. 

Germany  

6,  758,  827 

Per  cent. 
31.80 

Per  cent. 
14.05 

Percent. 

Per  cent. 

Belgium 

608  698 

27  50 

Switzerland  

405,609 

11.10 

25.70 

...... 

Austria  *-.... 

2,  304,  501 

19.79 

23.17 

44.99 

54.84 

Total  

10,  077,  636 

... 

LONG   HEAD   AND   BROAD   HEAD. 

About  all  European  peoples  show  two  different  forms  of  head,  a 
long  and  small  and  a  short  and  broad  head.  Formerly  in  Germany 
the  long  head  prevailed,  being  called  the  Germanic  type,  but  in  recent 
times  short,  broad  heads  have  increased,  till  now  they  constitute  the 
largest  number. a 

RELATION   OF   COLOR   OF   SKIN,    HAIR,    AND    EYES. 

The  color  of  the  skin,  which  stands  in  a  certain  relation  with  color 
of  hair  and  eyes,  is  an  important  characteristic  for  distinguishing  races; 
but  in  Germany,  as  in  other  European  countries,  there  is  no  uniform 
relation.  Blonde  and  brown  people  follow  one  another  in  most  places, 
and  to-day  only  a  few  peoples  are  wholly  blonde.  It  seems  as  if  bru- 
nettes were  increasing  daily.  According  to  Virchow,  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  the  long-headed  people  were  blonde  and  light  colored,  and 


"For  measurements  of  Polish  and  Italian  children,  see  Hearing  before  House 
Judiciary  Committee  on  bill  for  laboratory,  etc. 


44 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


the  short-headed  brunette  and  dark  colored,  the  course  of  the  mixture 
and  the  spread  of  different  peoples  (also  in  prehistoric  terms)  would 
present  valuable  information. 

There  is  in  typical  individuals  of  a  race  a  more  or  less  constant  rela- 
tion between  the  colors  of  the  skin,  hair,  and  eyes.  Frequently  all  are 
dark,  often  they  are  all  light. 

Virchow  assumes  that  since  there  was  never  a  dark  race  with  light 
hair,  although  originally  blonde  hair  can  become  in  adult  age  dark, 
that  those  persons  who  between  the  ages  of  6  and  1-t  have  blonde  hair 
should  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a  blonde  race.  There  is  no  race 
of  which  the  skin,  hair,  or  iris  is  wholly  without  pigment.  Albinism 
is  a  pathological  condition.  No  definite  lines  can  be  drawn  dividing 
blondes  from  brunettes.  Every  individual  has  a  tendency  to  a  darker 
shade. 

The  majority  of  children  are  born  with,  blue  eyes,  but  with  very 
many  the  blue  soon  changes  into  a  brown.  This  change  begins  in  the 
first  week  in  life;  after -two  years  the  permanent  color  is  in  most  cases 
determined. 

The  change  of  color  in  the  hair  is  much  slower.  The  majority-  of 
children  have  blonde  hair  at  birth.  It  becomes  dark  gradually,  some- 
times not  till  after  puberty.  The  same  is  generally  true  of  the  skin, 
only  the  darkening  process  extends  further  into  later  life.  In  white 
races  elderly  people  always  have  a  more  colored  skin  than  young  peo- 
ple; the  difference  is  more  of  quantity  than  quality. 

Since  there  is  a  certain  parallelism  in  the  color  of  skin,  hair,  and 
eyes,  persons  with  blue  eyes,  blonde  hair,  and  white  skin  are  called 
"blondes,"  those  with  brown  eyes,  brown  hair,  and  brown  skin 
"brunettes."  But  there  is  a  large  number  of  combinations  of  less 
significance.  The  white  races  especially  show  great  individual  varia- 
bility in  combinations.  In  making  these  divisions  individuals  are  gen- 
erally taken  between  the  ages  of  20  and  25. 

The  general  results  of  the  investigation  in  the  schools  of  Germany 
are  confirmed  by  similar  studies  in  Austria,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland. 
The  number  of  children  is  so  great  (over  10,000  000)  that  these  results 
must  be  considered  as  fairly  well  established. 

GROWTH  AND  SOCIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS.  a 

The  following  investigations  in  juvenile  anthropometry  show  experi- 
mentally the  influence  of  sociological  surroundings  upon  the  growth 
of  children. 

TABLE  I. 


Number 
of 
persons. 

Age. 

Average 
weight. 

Average 
heigh'. 

Average 
chest  girth. 

Average 
lung 
capacity. 

Average 
muscular 
force. 

Year  s 

Kilos. 

Cm. 

Cm. 

C.Cm. 

Kilos, 

9  . 

10 

24.51 

126.  3 

61 

1,660 

66.5 

34. 

11 

26.18 

128.1 

61.2 

1,700 

68.5 

45. 

12 

28.38 

132.  1 

62.8 

1,860 

79 

41. 

13 

31.75 

137.5 

65.2 

2,045 

95 

28. 

14 

33.06 

140 

66.4 

2,100 

105 

23. 

15 

39.36 

148.6 

69.5 

2,  445 

118.T) 

15. 

16 

41.47 

151.2 

70.3 

2,485 

121 

9  . 

17 

43.20 

151.3 

71.6 

2,660 

136 

6  ... 

18 

44.55 

154.3 

72.6 

3,115 

142 

4  ... 

19 

46.65 

156 

74.2 

3,125 

150 

a  Article  by  writer  in  the  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


45 


Influence  of  unfavorable  conditions  on  the  life  and  physical  develop- 
ment of  youth  is  shown  in  Table  1,  by  Pagliani. 

These  measurements  were  made  on  the  inmates  of  an  institution  in 
Italy. 

In  Table  II,  by  Weissenberg,  the  number  in  some  of  the  groups  is 
not  large,  but  the  figures  show  a  general  regularity.  The  poor  are 
less  in  neight  and  weight  than  the  wealthy  classes. 

INFLUENCE    OF    POVERTY    ON    NUTRITION. 

In  Table  111  Vazhnoff  shows  the  influence  of  unfavorable  conditions 
on  nutrition  among  Russian  children. 

According  to  Liharzik,  growth  is  regular,  and  all  deviation  tends  to 
produce  disease,  as  disease  also  produces  deviation.  A  large  head  is 
frequently  accompanied  with  a  contracted  chest;  here  mental  action 
ma}7  be  slow — probabty  from  deficient  supply  of  purified  blood.  Boys 
of  small  frames  often  have  rather  large  heads  and  are  deficient  in 
repose  of  character.  Citj^-bred  children  are  usually  more  vivacious, 
but  have  less  power  of  endurance  than  children  reared  in  the  country. 

TABLE  II. 


Age. 


Length  of  body. 


Poor. 


Middle 
classes. 


Weight  of  body. 


Poor. 


Middle 
classes. 


Strength  of  lift. 


10  years. 

11  years. 

12  years. 

13  years. 


Om. 

124.2 

125.9 

130.8 

133.3 


Cm. 
124.7 
128.0 
134.5 
137.7 


Cm. 
125.6 
131.5 
137.8 
140.4 


Kilos. 
25.95 
26.99 
29.03 
32.23 


Kilos. 
25.69 
27.29 
30.75 
33.34 


Kilos. 
25.25 
27.28 
31.97 
34.74 


Kilos.  I 
36.2 
40.1 
49.4 
54.5 


Kilos. 
34.6 
40.7 
54.2 
60.8 


Kilos. 
32.1 
40.1 
53.2 
60.5 


Age. 


13  years 

14  years 

15  years 

16  years 

17  years 

18  years 

19  years 

20  years 

21-25  years 

26-30  years 

31-40  years.... 
41-^0  years 


Length  of  body. 
Tailor. 


Weight  of  body. 


Diddle 


class. 


Cm. 
138.4 
144.4 
147.7 
152.5 
160.0 
159. 0 
161.0 
164.5  | 
162.5  ! 
162.9  ! 
162.4  ' 
164.1 


Om. 

137.7 
144.8 
148. 2 
155.8 
160.1 
161.1 
164.1 
164.0 
164.8 
165.9 
164.3 
164.2 


gmith. 


Cm. 

138.4 

143.8 

145.9 

149.7 

157.4 

161.0 

165.0 

163.3 

166.5 

167.8 

167.2 

164.8 


Tailor. 


Kilos. 
33.52 
37.47 
40.07 
45.52 
60.10 
50.76 
54.24 
54.67 
55.37 
56.91 
58. 09 
59. 53 


Middle 
class. 


Kilos. 
33.34 
37.89 
40.98 
46.34 
51.40 
53.98 
56.75 
56.60 
58. 51 
61.69 
60.45 
62.92 


Smith 


Kilos. 


36.59 
40.30 
40.87 
51.40 
52.84 
61.50 
57.10 
61.69 
63.86 
63.91 
62.40 


Strength  of  lift. 


Middle 


Kilos. 
65.4 
80.3 
81.9 
97.1 
98.7 
120.8 
123. 0 
124. 7 
132.0 
126.4 
105.0 
97.30 


Tailor.    Smith 


Kilos. 
60.8 
80.1 
90.6 
107.2 
119.9 
129.6 
143.4 
149.9 
143.7 
142. 8 
133.0 
124.5 


Kilos. 
67.0 
80.3 
89.7 
111.7 
138.0 
136.8 
175.0 
175. 2 
185.5 
170.9 
165.0 
152. 5 


In  the  report  of  the  anthropometric  committee  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  are  given  the  results  of 
observations  in  over  50,000  individuals.  In  Table  IV  is  shown  how 
the  growth  lessens  as  we  go  lower  in  the  social  scale;  there  is  a. 
difference  of  5  inches  in  average  statures  between  the  best  and  worst 
nurtured  classes  in  the  community. 

From  this  table  will  be  seen  the  relative  statures  of  boys  of  the  age 
of  11  to  12  3^ears  under  different  social  and  physical  conditions  of 


46 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


life.  The  zigzag  line  running  through' the  means  shows  the  lowering 
of  stature  as  the  boys  are  farther  and  farther  removed  from  the  most 
favorable  conditions  of  growth. 

WELL-TO-DO   CLASSES   SUPERIOR   IN   HEIGHT   AND   WEIGHT. 

Dr.  Paul  Hasse  in  1880  measured  2,806  children  in  Gohlis-Leipzig — 
1,386  boys  and  1,420  girls.  The  average  heights  and  weights  at  differ- 
ent ages  are  shown  in  Table  V. 

TABLE  III. 


Age. 

Nutrition. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Poor. 

Medium. 

Good. 

Total 
num- 
ber. 

Poor. 

Medium. 

Good. 

Total 
num- 
ber. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

cent. 

25 
21 
20 
13 
17 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

38 
44 
69 
16 

1  year 

51 
38 
22 
7 
2 

90 
68 
43 
25 
4 

44 
37 
39 
47 
36 

64 
76 
45 
21 
5 
1 

31 
42 
41 
40 

47 

205 
182 
110 
53 
11 
1 

20 
7 
2 
1 

25 
15 
10 
16 

30 
19 
4 
4 
1 

37 
41 
21 
68 

31 
20 
13 
1 
2 

81 
46 
19 
6 
3 

2  years  
3  years 

4  years  

5  years.  
6  years  

Total... 

120 

21.3 

230 

40.9 

212 

37.7 

562 

30 

19 

58 

37 

67 

44 

155 

TABLE  IV. 


Height. 

Total 
num- 
ber of 
obser- 
vations. 

Public 
schools, 
coun- 
try. 

Middle-class 
schools. 

Elementary  schools. 

Milita- 
ry asy- 
lums. 

Indus- 
trial 
schools. 

Upper 
towns. 

Lower 
towns. 

Agri- 
cultu- 
ral la- 
borers, 
coun- 
try. 

Arti- 
sans, 
towns. 

Factories  and 
workshops. 

Coun- 
try. 

Towns. 

6 
16 
35 
66 
118 
230 
329 
361 

441 
370 

367 
252 
132 
102 
22 
12 
1 

2 
2 
9 
11 
21 
28 
33 
15 

14 
6 

7 
2 

3 
5 
8 
13 

27 
57 
68 
58 

1 
2 
0 
4 
4 
15 
24 
26 

36 

3 
9 
17 
23 
35 
53 

2 
5 
4 
14 
32 
47 
47 

1 
2 

7 
15 
33 
46 

84 

118 
123 

143 
114 
76 
59 

7 
10 

58  inches 

2 
5 

10 
13 
36 
34 

5 

JB1 

46 
31 
11 

5 
3 

57  inches 

5 
'    3 
17 
20 
38 

59 
57 

61 
40 
20 
13 
7 
1 

1 

56  inches 

55  inches  
54  inches  

2 
4 

6 
10 
11 

10 
6 
3 
1 
1 

53  inches  

55 
37 
25 

23 
8 
3 

52  inches  

61 
40 

27 
20 
1 
4 

58 
36 

32 
14 
7 
5 
1 

51  inches  
50  inches.  .  .     . 

28 

17 
12 
4 
7 
1 

49  inches  

48  inches 

47  inches 

46  inches  

45  inches 

44  inches  

43  inches  

42  inches. 

1 
1 

1 
1 

Total  

2,  862 

150 

294 

392 

304 

181 

293 

52.17 
52 

341 

840 

66 

Average  height  
Mean  height  

52.60 
52.5 

54.98 
55 

53.85 
54 

53.70 
53.5 

53.01 
53 

52.60 
52.5 

51.56 
51.5 

51.20 
51 

50.02 
50 

A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 


47 


Comparing  the  poor  with  the  well-to-do  classes,  the  results  show 
that  for  boys  of  the  same  age  the  height  varies  from  0.7  to  4  centime- 
ters in  favor  of  the  well-to-do  classes;  for  girls  it  varies  from  1.7  to 
4.1  centimeters  in  favor  of  the  well-to-do.  The  children  of  the  well- 
to-do  classes  excel  also  in  weight  for  the  same  age;  for  boys  the  excess 
runs  from  0.3  to  4.7  pounds;  for  girls  from  1.6  to  4.6  pounds.  In 
general  the  difference  between  the  classes  is  not  so  great  as  in  other 
places,  as  in  Freiburg  and  Turin,  except  in  Bost<5n,  where  the  differ- 
ence between  the  classes  is  less  marked. 

Hasse  also  gives  data  concerning  the  weak  or  defective  children,  who 
generally  can  not  attend  school  regularly.  Such  children  are  usually 
abnormally  developed  or  have  some  chronic  ailment.  In  the  primary 
schools  9  per  cent  belonged  to  this  class.  A  striking  fact  is  this,  that 
in  many  cases  these  children  in  certain  years  were  over  normal — that 
is,  were  taller  and  heavier  than  other  children. 

This  suggests  that  there  is  a  certain  normal  relation  between  mental 
and  physical  development,  the  finding  of  which  is  one  of  the  aims  of 
anthropometry. 

TABLE  V. 


Age. 

Height. 

Weight. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

6-7  vears  

Cm. 
110.2 
114.4 
119.4 
123.9 
129.  1 
132.4 
138.2 
140.7 
146.2 

Cm. 
109.3 
113.7 
117.7 
124.0 
128.6 
133.9 
139.5 
145.1 
149.1 

Pounds. 
42.7 
45.8 
49.3 
53.4 
57.5 
61.9 
69.1 
71.8 
79.8 

Pounds. 
40.9 
44.7 
48.1 
52.4 
57.0 
63.2 
70.5 
77.2 
86.5 

7-8  years  .  . 

8-9  years 

9-10  years  .  .             

10-11  years. 

11-12  years  

12-13  years  

13-14  years 

Over  14  years  

HYPNOTISM." 

In  a  new  line  of  inquiry,  although  the  phenomena  may  be  as  old  as 
mankind,  there  inevitably  arises  a  confusion  of  ideas.  Each  investi- 
gator starts  out  from  some  special  point.  At  first  the  facts  are  isolated 
and  often  seem  to  be  contradictory.  But  as  investigation  progresses, 
increasing  greatly  the  number  of  data,  points  that  had  little  meaning 
come  to  assume  in  the  light  of  other  facts  a  definite  significance.  Then 
classification  begins,  and  we  see  the  foundation  of  a  science  gradually 
forming.  Such  in  brief  has  been  the  course  of  hypnotism. 

When  in  France  some  ten  years  ago  many  cures  by  hypnotic  sug- 
gestion were  reported,  the  Germans,  who  had  little  confidence  in  the 
French,  were  naturally  incredulous,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
men,  regarded  these  cures  as  mythical.  Here,  as  in  other  instances,  the 
French  have  shown  themselves  to  be  the  innovators.  But  the  Ger- 
mans, though  cautious  at  first,  never  fail,  when  once  they  have  entered 
a  field,  to  carry  investigations  on  with  their  well-known  thoroughness. 

One  of  the  men. who  were  instrumental  in  introducing  the  study  of 
hypnotism  into  Germany  was  Professor  Forel,  of  Zurich.  At  this  time 
the  writer  had  the  privilege  of  attending  his  clinics.  Many  experiments 

a  Article  by  writer  in  The  Chautauquan. 


48  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

were  made.  Forel,  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  hypnotized  a  trained 
nurse  and  extracted  a  tooth  without  her  feeling  it  in  the  least.  In  another 
experiment  he  told  her,  while  in  the  hypnotic  state,  that  at  the  next  meet- 
ing of  the  class  she  must  take  his  hat  down  from  its  place  when  he  began 
to  lecture  and  place  it  on  his  manuscript.  This  was  done  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  class.  In  a  week  from  this  time,  when  the  next  lecture 
took  place,  as  Forel  began  to  speak,  the  nurse  arose,  then  hesitated 
somewhat,  and  finally  took  his  hat  down  from  the  nail  upon  which  it 
was  hanging  and  placed  it  upon  his  manuscript.  She  was  of  course  in 
her  normal  state,  not  knowing  she  had  been  told  to  do  this  a  week 
before  when  in  the  hypnotic  condition.  Her  hesitation  was  due  to  her 
normal  disinclination  to  the  impropriety  of  interrupting  the  professor 
in  this  way.  But  her  normal  hesitant  feeling  was  not  strong  enough 
to  overcome  the  command  which  was  impressed  upon  her  very  forcibly 
the  week  before,  while  she  was  in  a  hypnotic  condition.  There  were, 
so  to  speak,  two  selves  in  conflict,  her  normal  self  and  her  hypnotic 
self,  and  the  stronger  self  prevailed.  Forel  admitted  in  both  experi- 
ments that  he  could  not  be  certain  that  the  hypnotic  command  would 
be  obeyed.  He  repeated  the  command  to  her  several  times  with  much 
emphasis,  saying,  "You  must  take  my  hat  down;  you  can  not  help  it; 
it  is  absurd  not  to  do  it,"  "  Your  tooth  will  not  hurt;  you  can  not  feel 
it;  you  will  not  know  it  is  out." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  remark  that  this  uncertainty  of  causing  the 
h3rpnotic  self  to  control  the  normal  self  would  seem  to  make  the  appli- 
cation of  hypnotism  in  most  surgical  operations  impracticable.  The 
reader  may  ask,  Could  a  criminal  command  be  so  enforced  upon  one  in 
a  hypnotic  stateas  to  result  in  an  overt  act  in  the  waking  state;  that  is, 
is  a  post-hypnotic  crime  possible?  An  answer  to  this  question  would 
take  us  too  far  at  present,  but  it  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way,  that  it 
depends  upon  the  strength  of  the  normal  moral  self,  whether  the  crimi- 
nal hypnotic  self  can  overpower  it.  It  is  obvious  that  it  would  be 
easier  to  hypnotize  a  person  to  commit  a  crime  who  had  already  done 
such  things.  Thus  moral  habits,  well  formed,  are  a  safeguard  under 
all  conditions,  for  even  in  the  hypnotic  self  they  rise  up  unknown  to 
the  normal  self  and  resist  the  operator's  criminal  suggestion. 

In  this  study  we  wish  to  deal  with  the  curative  side  of  hypnotism, 
and  more  especially  with  recent  experiments  and  views  of  French 
specialists. 

If  waking  is  the  true  expression  of  the  active  and  free  mind,  sleep, 
on  the  contrary,  is  the  expression  to  a  variable  degree  of  its  non- 
activity.  The  complete  isolation  in  which  sleep  places  the  sleeper  in 
removing  him  from  all  cause  of  distraction  and  the  auto-suggestion  to 
put  his  mind  and  organism  in  repose  produce  a  reparative  and  benefi- 
cial effect,  which  gradually,  by  the  distribution  of  the  nervous  forces, 
restore  the  equilibrium  disturbed  by  work  while  waking.  Hypnotic 
sleep  is  produced  by  the  same  concentration  of  mind  as  ordinary  sleep, 
but  instead  of  being  due,  as  in  the  latter  case,  to  self-suggestion,  it  is 
effected  by  suggestion  from  without. 

Subjects  plunged  artificially  into  the  most  profound  sleep,  in  place 
of  a  general  and  absolute  isolation  of  the  senses,  may  retain  a  slight 
connection  of  thought  and  sensation  with  the  hypnotist  alone.  This  is 
because  they  fall  asleep  thinking  of  him,  and  their  active  thought  con- 
tinues automatically  from  them  to  him.  The  proof  of  this  is  that  the 
subject  only  performs  acts  suggested  by  the  hypnotist.  If  prolonged 


A    PLAN    FOB    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  49 

natural  sleep,  effected  by  an  habitual  and  unconscious  suggestion, 
restores  poise  and  nervous  energy,  all  the  more  has  artificial  sleep, 
properly  directed,  like  results,  especially  if  prolonged  for  some  time. 
Simple  affirmations  to  the  waking  subject  sometimes  have  the  power 
to  produce  curative  effects,  and  these  affirmations  may  become  much 
more  efficacious  if  they  are  made  during  artificial  sleep.  In  this  case 
the  subject,  isolated  from  the  world  and  retaining  but  a  greatly  dimin- 
ished sensibility,  can  not  be  distracted  by  impressions  previously  felt. 
At  the  same  time  his  will  has  lost  its  initiative;  he  accepts  and  submits 
to  what  is  imposed  on  his  mind. 

Incitation,  which  is  called  suggestion,  addressed  to  the  mind  of  the 
sleeper,  whose  inert  nervous  force  is  centered  in  the  idea  of  sleep,  must 
without  resistance  direct  this  force  by  turns  to  any  part  of  the  organ- 
ism; from  this  results  an  action  on  the  organs  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  attention  fixed  on  the  idea  of  sleep.  When  a  suggestion  is 
made  to  cure  the  sleeping  patient,  deprived  of  initiative  power,  it 
causes  either  a  depression  or  an  excitation  of  an  organ  or  a  part  of  the 
nervous  system;  or  the  brain  diminishes  its  active  influence  on  the 
tissues  according  as  the  nervous  force  is  accumulated  in  it;  or,  on  the 
contrary,  it  augments  this  influence  in  the  same  proportion.  The  more 
emphasis  there  is  centered  on  the  idea  of  sleep  the  greater  become  the 
curative  effects  obtained  by  suggestion;  that  is,  the  nearer  we  bring 
the  subject  to  a  state  of  profound  somnambulism,  the  more  susceptible 
we  render  him  to  a  quick  and  complete  cure. 

Whatever  method  may  be  employed  to  obtain  the  cure  of  the  sick 
submitted  to  suggestion,  whether  simple  affirmations  of  suggestive 
force  are  made  to  them  when  awake,  or  whether  favorable  emotions 
are  produced,  we  induce  in  the  diseased  organs  effects  either  sedative 
or  exciting  according  to  the  curative  idea  which  we  express.  These 
actions  could  not  be  produced  if  the  mental  and  physical  faculties  were 
not  transformable,  if  the  mind  was  not  closely  allied  to  the  matter. 
Suggestions  can  not  cure  all  morbid  affections,  but  it  has  at  least,  and 
especially  in  sleep,  a  beneficial  influence  over  them,  even  those  which 
are  incurable. 

With  the  aid  of  Professors  Bernheim,  Beaunis,  and  Liegeois,  Liebault 
was  enabled  to  produce  on  a  hysterical  somnambulist  the  apparitions 
of  reddening  spots  on  the  skin,  blisters,  and  stigmata  by  the  single  action 
of  the  idea  they  had  suggested.  On  other  subjects  they  obtained  sep- 
arately like  results.  If  emotion  is  added  to  the  power  of  suggestion 
to  reenforce  it,  the  results  are  stifl  more  decided.  In  two  somnambu- 
lists they  were  able  by  simple  suggestion  to  produce  the  slightest 
modifications  in  the  skin.  As  a  result  of  strong  emotion  added  to  sug- 
gestion they  caused  a  redness  in  the  form  of  a  double  cross  to  appear 
on  the  hand  of  one,  and  blisters  of  the  epidermis  on  the  hand  of  the 
other,  which  took  several  days  to  entirely  pass  away. 

The  suggestion  during  natural  sleep  must  be  made  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  patient  and  not  at  his  instigation.  Suppose  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  sleeping  subject  to  have  been  previously  freed  from  all 
imaginative  representation  and  a  receptivity  created  similar  to  that  of 
the  ordinary  hypnotic  subject  and  conformable  to  the  laws  of  tho 
diminution  of  consciousness.  The  intervention  itself  must  convey  sug- 
gestions, distinctly  articulated,  in  such  manner  that  there  is  synchro- 
nism between  the  emissions  of  the  voice  of  the  therapeutical  psychologist 
and  the  respiratory  movements  of  the  subject.  It  would  be  well  to 

S.  Doc.  400 4 


50  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

suspend  the  intervention  whenever  the  patient  gave  evidence  of  waking 
up  or  his  respiration  quickened.  The  suggestion  should  never  be 
brusque  or  sudden,  and  the  beginning  and  end  should  be  thus:  The  one 
gradually  increased,  the  other  progressively  diminished,  but  both 
enunciated  in  a  purposely  drawling  and  monotonous  voice.  When  the 
suggestion  is  finished  the  subject  must  continue  to  sleep,  to  dream  of 
the  things  suggested,  and  not  to  waken  until  the  hour  determined  upon. 

Suggestion  during  natural  sleep  has  right  to  a  prominent  place  in  the 
treatment  of  mental  diseases.  It  also  finds  place  in  the  diverse  branches 
of  the  psycho-therapeutic  domain.  In  this  way  we  may  learn  more  as 
to  the  psychology  of  sleep. 

Mesmerism,  hypnotism,  and  suggestion  are  perhaps  effects  of  the 
same  cause,  but  these  effects  are  certainty  produced  under  different 
conditions  and  according  to  different  laws.  Boirac  agrees  with  Durand 
de  Gros  that  suggestion  and  mesmerism  are  two  distinct  agents  equally 
real  and  independent  one  from  the  other,  which  can  counterfeit  each 
other  as  they  can  also  combine  for  the  production  of  common  effects. 
Thus  there  may  be  suggestion  without  mesmerism  and  mesmerism  with- 
out suggestion.  There  may  be  a  pseudo-mesmerism  which  is  but  sug- 
gestion, and  a  pseudo-suggestion  which  is  only  mesmerism;  finally, 
there  may  be  inseparable  mesmerism  and  suggestion;  suggestive  mes- 
merism or  mesmeric  suggestion.  That  suggestion  exists  without  mes- 
merism is  continually  proved.  "When,"  says  Boirac,  "  without 
looking  at  or  touching  a  subject,  I  say,  'Close  your  eyes;  now  you  can 
not  open  them,'  and  he  vainly  tries  to  do  so;  when  I  add,  'They  will 
open  of  themselves  when  I  have  counted  seven, 'and  the  effect  announced 
is  produced,  it  is  evident  that  mesmerism  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
phenomena  and  they  must  be  explained  by  suggestion  alone." 

But  suggestion  is  not  only  independent  of  mesmerism,  it  can  in  many 
cases  take  its  place,  or  rather  simulate  all  its  effects.  Here,  for  exam- 
ple, is  an  experiment  often  tried  with  certain  subjects:  I  place  my 
open  hand  above  the  hand  of  the  subject.  After  several  seconds  he 
declares  that  he  feels  a  very  strong  impression  of  heat;  presently  this 
heat  becomes  intolerable  and  he  begs  me  to  take  my  hand  away.  I 
reply  that  I  do  not  hinder  him  from  withdrawing  his,  but  after  unsuc- 
cessful effort  he  declares  it  impossible,  and,  in  fact,  the  hand  seems  to 
be  paralyzed.  Nevertheless  it  moves,  rises  or  falls  as  soon  as  I  make 
these  movements,  as  if  an  invisible  thread  attached  them.  Would  one 
not  believe  oneself  to  be  in  the  presence  of  a  veritable  magnetic 
phenomenon?  Yet  there  is  nothing  but  the  counterfeit  of  magnetism 
by  suggestion.  To  convince  oneself  it  is  only  necessary  to  change 
one  condition  of  the  experiment,  that  which  permits  operator  and  sub- 
ject to  suggest  unknown  to  each  other.  Example:  I  say  to  the  subject, 
"  Close  your  eyes;  now  you  can  not  open  them,"  and  the  subject  makes 
vain  efforts  to  unseal  the  lids.  If  then  I  begin  by  holding  my  hand 
above  his  *to  make  it  rise  or  fall,  as  he  is  not  apprised  by  sight  he  feels 
nothing  and  does  not  move.  My  hand,  a  moment  before  so  efficacious, 
no  longer  exercises  any  influence.  But  there  are  cases  where,  sug- 
gestion being  eliminated,  the  magnetic  effects  remain  just  as  distinct 
and  complete,  the  subject  being  truly  magnetic  and  pseudo-magnetic 
or  purely  suggestible. 

It  is  evident  that  suggestible  subjects  with  whom  we  can  obtain  the 
counterfeit  of  magnetism  are  more  common  than  the  true  magnetic 


A    PLAN    FOB    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  51 

subjects,  therefore  Bernheim  and  all  pure  suggestionists  are  of  good 
faith  when  they  claim  to  have  victoriously  refuted  mesmerism. 

Boirac  cites  two  out  of  five  cases  of  persons  who  possessed  this 
remarkable  element.  The  one,  G.  P.,  a  young  electrician;  the  other, 
L.  V.,  a  student  of  law  and  philosophy.  In  experimenting  with  them 
precaution  was  always  taken  to  bandage  the  eyes;  then  they  were  told 
to  tell  as  soon  as  they  felt  anything,  under  these  conditions  the  most 
varied  and  precise  effects  were  obtained  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  corre- 
sponding to  positions  and  movements  of  the  operator. 

In  the  case  of  G.  P.,  Boirac  once  placed  mesmerism  and  suggestion 
in  opposition.  He  says,  "I  told  him  I  wished  to  experiment  on  the 
time  necessary  to  produce  the  magnetic  effect  and  asked  him  to  tell 
me  the  instant  he  began  to  feel  it.  I  said  I  would  act  exclusively  by 
attraction  in  his  right  hand  and  asked  him  to  concentrate  all  his  atten- 
tion on  that  side.  After  this  preparatory  suggestion  1  said.  M  begin,' 
making  a  movement  with  my  rignt  hand  but  without  placing  it  oppo- 
site that  of  my  subject.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  minutes  the  sub- 
ject, who  was  very  attentive,  murmured:  'It  is  strange,  but  I  feel 
absolutely  nothing,1  then  suddenly,  4Oh!  I  do  feel  something,  only  it  is 
in  the  left  hand  and  is  not  an  attraction,  but  a  tingling  or  pricking.' r 
Boirac'had,  in  fact,  silently  placed  his  left  hand  (which  always  produced 
tingling,  while  the  right  produced  attraction)  close  to  the  left  knee  of 

This  proves,  in  this  case  at  least,  that  suggestion  is  powerless  to  sim- 
ulate the  effect  of  magnetism.  When  the  subject  is  eminently  suggest- 
ible, he  may  be  advised  to  fix  all  his  attention  on  one  of  his  hands, 
being  told  that  he  will  feel  attracted  by  an  irresistible  force.  As  soon 
as  the  operator  says,  "  I  begin,"  the  subject's  hand  rises,  although  the 
operator  has  made  no  movement.  In  this  instance  suggestion  simu- 
lates magnetic  action  perfectly,  but  if  at  the  same  time,  without  saying 
anything,  the  operator  places  his  right  hand  vis-a-vis  to  his  other  one 
it  will  be  attracted,  the  two  effects  being  simultaneous.  Identical  in 
appearance,  they  are  in  realit}7  produced  by  two  distinct  causes — the 
one  by  magnetism,  the  other  by  suggestion. 

Again,  the  subject  being  still  in  the  charmed  or  credulous  condition, 
it  is  suggested  that,  in  order  to  act  exclusively  on  one  side  of  his  body, 
the  operator  will  render  the  other  inert,  and  he  ascertains  that  there 
is,  in  fact,  paralysis  and  anesthesia  of  that  side.  Here,  again,  the  opera- 
tor has  obtained  by  suggestion  a  phenomenon  of  attraction  in  the  mem- 
bers where  sensibility  and  motility  remained  intact,  but  if  he  place  his 
right  hand  near  the  knee  or  foot  paralyzed  by  suggestion,  he  finds  that 
in  spite  of  the  suggestion  there  are  movements  of  attraction. 

Thus  not  only  can  mesmerism  produce  its  effects  independent  of  sug- 
gestion, but  it  can  in  certain  cases  annul  the  effects  of  suggestion. 
There  is  consequently,  besides  pseudo-suggestive  mesmerism,  a  pseudo- 
mesmeric  suggestion.  If  it  is  scientifically  proven  that  magnetism 
exists,  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  regard  to  its  possible  intervention 
in  the  ensemble  of  phenomena  attributed  to  hypnotism  and  especialhr 
to  suggestion. 

The  Nancy  school  said  with  justice  that  the  old  magnetizers  did  not 
cease  to  make  suggestions  unwittingty  and  suggestionists  should  expect 
to  have  it  said  that  they  have  unwittingty  employed  magnetism.  It  is 
possible  that  the  gaze,  the  contact,  the  passes,  and  the  personality  of 


52  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

the  operator  do  not  act  on  certain  subjects  except  through  purely  sug- 
gestive influences,  but  it  is  also  possible  that  with  certain  other  subjects 
a  magnetic  influence  is  added  to  or  takes  the  place  of  suggestion.  As 
long  as  these  two  agents,  each  as  real  as  the  other,  are  always  liable  to 
enter  into  play  and  combine  their  actions,  neither  has  a  right  a  priori 
to  the  effects  produced  by  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other. 

It  is  then  permissible  to  suppose  that  if  certain  operators,  such  as 
Liebault  and  Bernheim,  succeed  so  easily  in  suggesting  so  large  a 
number  of  persons,  it  is  not  alone  because  of  their  great  skill,  their 
long  experience,  and  consummate  knowledge  of  suggestive  technic, 
but  that  they  unwittingly  possess  an  exceptional  magnetic  power. 
This,  too,  would  explain  the  great  inequality  in  the  operations  of 
different  suggestionists. 

One  of  the  phenomena  which  most  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
ancient  mesmerists  was  that  known  as  the  u  charm  of  a  look."  In  cer- 
tain subjects  there  has  been  found  a  peculiar  disposition  to  fall  under 
the  fascination  of  a  gaze  by  an  action  analogous  to  that  which  takes 
place  in  certain  animals.  Such  was  the  case  with  a  young  lady  artist 
treated  by  Berillon.  When  enjoined  to  look  the  operator  in  the  eyes, 
this  person's  eyes  would  open  wide,  the  pupils  dilate,  and  a  singular 
fixed  look  come  into  them.  One  would  say  that  there  was  in  the  mind 
of  this  subject  but  one  fixed  idea,  not  to  lose  sight  of  the  eyes  of  the 
operator.  In  fact,  if  the  latter  rose  the  subject  also  rose;  if  he  turned 
his  head,  she  leaned  forward  and  endeavored  not  to  lose  sight  of  his 
eyes. 

The  spontaneous  apparition  of  this  somewhat  rare  phenomenon  was 
observed  from  the  beginning  of  the  hypnotic  treatment.  The  patient 
had  suffered  for  several  years  from  an  involuntary  habit  of  putting 
her  paint  brushes  between  her  lips  in  order  to  better  point  them.  The 
result  was  a  saturnine  intoxication.  No  advice,  no  effort  of  her  will 
could  break  the  habit.  At  the  first  treatment  the  therapeutic  aim  was 
reached.  The  operator  said,  "  You  can  no  longer  put  your  brushes 
in  your  mouth,  and  if  you  try  to  do  so  your  arm  will  become  paralyzed." 

The  patient,  on  returning  to  the  clinic,  complained  of  a  persistent 
numbness  in  the  arm,  which,  while  it  prevented  her  from  canning  the 
brushes  to  her  mouth,  also  hindered  her  from  painting.  A  suggestion 
was  made  that  would  enable  her  to  work  but  at  the  same  time  prevent 
her  from  putting  the  brushes  in  her  mouth.  It  was  then  only  neces- 
sary to  develop  in  her  the  faculties  of  visual  memory  and  the  manual 
ability  necessary  in  the  practice  of  her  art.  This  was  an  easy  task,  as 
she  distinctly  belongs  to  the  visual  type  and  was  gifted  in  the  highest 
degree  with  visual  memory. 

Those  subjects  susceptible  to  fascination  owe  it  to  the  facility  with 
which  they  concentrate  their  spontaneous  and  voluntary  attention  in 
the  visual  function. 

The  fixity  of  gaze  that  one  experiences  on  realizing  the  charm  is 
but  the  experimental  exaggeration  of  one  form  of  attention.  It  is 
probable  that  identical  phenomena  could  be  produced  in  those  subjects 
who  belong  to  the  auditive  type  by  calling  their  attention  to  agreeable 
and  captivating  sounds. 

We  should  discriminate  between  the  prognostic  and  treatment  of 
obsessions  which  result  from  a  series  of  incidental  onuses  (moral  shock, 
fear,  etc.)  and  those  united  to  a  constitutionally  hereditary  condition. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OP    MAN.  53 

In  the  first  case  the  prognostic  is  more  favorable  and  treatment  by 
hypnotic  suggestion  is  indicated. 

In  such  cases  the  treatment,  which  is  necessarily  long,  must  be 
methodical  and  progressive.  The  first  treatments  are  confined  to 
having  the  patient  remain  seated  in  an  attitude  of  sleep  with  the  eyes 
closed.  In  this  way  the  mental  education  of  the  subject  begins;  he 
becomes  more  and  more  docile,  more  and  more  ready  to  be  hypnotized. 
From  the  moment  the  first  light  sleep  appears  the  arterial  tension  is 
lessened  and  this  lessening  of  the  tension  is  perceptible  to  the  sphyg- 
momanomete.a  Soon  the  sleep  is  augmented  and  the  patient  can  per- 
form automatic  acts.  By  these  gymnastics  one  succeeds  in  modifying 
the  normal  condition  of  the  subject  and  awakens  in  him  diverse  apti- 
tudes of  his  cerebral  activity. 

It  was  by  this  procedure  that  Dr.  Berillon  undertook  the  treatment 
of  the  following  case:  The  patient  on  returning  home  one  evening  :as 
informed  that  a  neighbor  in  an  access  of  frenzy  had  attempted  to 
strangle  her  child.  The  woman  was  very  much  distressed  and  passed 
a  bad  night.  In  the  morning  as  she  went  to  embrace  her  child  she 
felt  a  strong  impulse  to  squeeze  his  neck.  Seized  with  alarm,  she 
rushed  to  her  pl^sician,  who  tried  to  reassure  her.  From  that  time 
she  was  obsessed  by  the  idea  of  homicide.  The  least  contact  with 
her  child  or  even  the  thought  of  him  was  sufficient  to  arouse  this 
obsession  and  throw  her  into  a  paroxysm.  She  was  submitted  to 
mental  treatment  and  recovered  entirely. 

One  of  the  interesting  studies  is  that  of  the  artifices  by  which  sug- 
gestion is  reenforced.  In  the  following  case  the  artifice  consisted  of  a 
psycho-mechanical  action.  Mr.  T.,  56  years  of  age,  had  from  his 
infancy  the  habit  of  biting  his  finger  nails.  In  spite  of  all  efforts  in 
that  direction  he  had  been  unable  to  break  himself  of  the  habit.  In 
the  face  of  such  an  automatic  habit  one  might  well  believe  that  the 
mental  condition  of  one  so  disordered  must  present  other  manifesta- 
tions, but  there  was  nothing  of  the  kind.  Mr.  T.  was  neither  vicious 
nor  impulsive;  he  felt  himself  capable  of  resisting  many  temptations, 
but  the  habit  of  biting  his  nails  escaped  the  sovereignty  of  his  will. 

When  asked  to  explain  the  mechanism  of  his  habit,  he  said:  "I  know 
the  habit  is  very  annoying,  and  I  attribute  to  it  a  series  of  gastro- 
intestinal troubles.  I  also  believe  that  it  has  aggravated  pulmonary 
affections.  I  have  a  most  ardent  desire  to  be  cured.  I  have  followed 
the  advice  of  the  most  celebrated  manicures,  but  the  habit  persists  in 
spite  of  my  efforts  and  vigilance.  1  can  not  look  at  my  nails  without 
feeling  ill  at  ease  and  humiliated. "  It  was  at  once  agreed  that  the  patient 
undergo  psycho-therapeutic  treatment;  but  as  he  showed  disquietude 
at  the  idea  of  being  hypnotized,  it, was  proposed  to  treat  him  by  sug- 
gestion in  a  waking  state,  which  proposition  h£  accepted.  In  order 
that  the  mental  impression  might  not  be  inefficient,  -the  suggestion  was 
reenforced  by  a  mechanical  process,  the  efficacy  of  which  had  many 
times  been  verified  with  children.  The  patient  being  seated  in  an  arm- 
chair with  his  arms  resting  on  those  of  the  chair,  the  operator  took 
hold  of  his  wrists  and  said:  "Try  to  put  your  hand  to  your  mouth; 
you  can  not;  the  pressure  which  I  exercise  on  your  hand  is  an  obstacle 
which  you  can  not  overcome.  Now,  whenever  the  habitual  impulse 

aAn  instrument  to  measure  blood  pressure  in  the  arteries. 


54  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

returns  you  will  feel  this  same  pressure  on  your  hand.  The  resist- 
ance, however,  will  not  be  caused  by  my  hand,  but  by  your  own  mind, 
in  which  I  have  created  a  brake.  The  force  expended  to  throw  off  the 
brake  will  give  you  time  to  recover  yourself,  to  become  conscious  of 
what  you  were  about  to  do,  and  interpose  }^our  own  will." 

This  exercise  was  repeated  several  times  for  each  hand,  and  the 
seance  was  ended.  Three  days  later  Mr.  T.  again  called  on  the  doc- 
tor. He  had  not  once  put  his  fingers  to  his  mouth.  He  said  that 
every  time  his  hand  rose  automatically  he  had  distinctly  felt  a  heavy 
sensation  in  the  forearm,  which  prevented  the  movement.  This  sensa- 
tion of  pressure  was  such  that  his  arm  felt  really  numb,  and  it  would 
have  cost  him  considerable  effort  to  overcome  it.  He  desired  to  have 
the  resistance  reenforced,  as  it  seemed  to  diminish  on  the  third  day. 
A  second  seance  of  suggestion  was  given,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to 
renew  the  treatment. 

Six  weeks  later  Mr.  T.'s  nails  had  grown  long  and  he  was  convinced 
that  he  was  definitely  cured  of  the  habit. 

We  have  given  these  cases  of  cure  through  suggestion  to  illustrate 
tneir  naturalness.  While  there  is  a  tendency  to  make  them  either 
"wonderful'  or  mythical,  the}^  are  in  reality  no  more  complex  a 
phenomenon  than  sleep  itself.  The  desire  to  make  them  of  a  mirac- 
ulous origin  was  due  to  a  failure  to  comprehend  their  real  nature. 
There  may  be  those  who  are  skeptical  as  to  hypnotic  phenomena,  but  a 
skepticism  that  remains  such  in  the  presence  of  facts  refutes  itself. 

TRAUMATIC  HYPNOTISM.  a 

Hypnosis  is  a  psychical  state  in  which  an  individual  is  more  than 
usually  susceptible  to  suggestions.  As  is  well  known,  the  degrees  of 
suggestibility  are  many.  Making  the  distinction  between  physiological 
and  pathological  hypnotism,  the  traumatic  hypnotism  would,  of  course, 
fall  under  the  latter  head.  We  have  been  led  to  employ  the  term  "  trau- 
matic" from  an  investigation  of  the  following  case.  The  case  is  all 
the  more  interesting  since  the  patient  is  a  physician.  She  gave  the 
account  herself  to  the  writer. 

Patient  says: 

I  was  in  a  village  cart  coming  up  the  street;  the  horse  was  spirited;  a  man  tried  to 
stop  him  from  running  away.  The  last  thing  I  remember  is  calling  to  him  to  get  out 
of  the  way.  The  following,  of  which  I  was  unconscious,  has  been  told  me  by  others: 
The  cart  struck  another  wagon  and  threw  me  into  the  air,  and  I  came  down  in  a 
heap,  as  if  one  were  going  to  dive  into  the  water,  striking  on  my  back  and  side,  hav- 
ing the  lines  wound  around  my  hands.  I  was  pulled  forward  and  up  by  the  horse 
starting  and  dragged  about  20  feet,  when  the  lines  slipped  off  of  my  hands.  I  did 
not  say  anything  at  this  moment.  They  picked  me  up  for  dead  and  carried  me  into 
a  drug  store.  I  then  began  to  talk  with  ttfem,  looking  deathly  pale.  They  asked  me 
if  I  was  hurt.  I  answered,  "No;  not  at  all;  I  am  all  right."  I  would  moan  every 
now  and  then  during  the  conversation.  Quite  a  number  of  my  friends  came  in,  and  I 
called  one  by  name.  Then  I  took  off  my  bonnet  and  walked  back  where  I  could 
wash  my  face  and  hands.  I  moaned  all  the  time  I  was  doing  this.  They  all  thought 
I  knew  what  I  was  doing.  I  walked  out  toward  the  hack,  but  told  them  I  preferred 
to  wait  till  the  crowd  got  out  of  the  way.  On  the  way  home  my  daughter  got  into 
the  hack,  and  I  told  her  not  to  worry;  that  I  was  all  right.  I  walked  from  the  hack 
into  the  house.  The  doctor  asked  me  to  sit  down,  but  I  said  I  did  not  dare  to,  for  I 
should  lose  control  of  myself.  I  asked  to  have  a  pin  taken  out  of  my  dress.  They 
gave  me  some  whisky.  Then  I  suggested  if  it  would  not  be  a  good  idea  to  take  a  hot 
bath.  My  daughter  asked  me  where  the  arnica  was,  and  I  told  her  in  the  office  on 
second  shelf,  which  was  correct. 

a  Article  by  writer  in  Science,  vol.  xix,  No.  466. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  55 

Then  they  gave  me  the  hot  bath,  and  while  the  servant  was  pouring  some  water 
on  my  head  I  came  to  myself  for  the  first  time  since  calling  to  the  man  to  get  out  of 
the  way,  but  only  for  a  few  seconds,  hearing  onlv  voices  and  feeling  something  strike 
my  bead,  giving  pain.  I  was  then  taken  out  of  the  bath  and  put  into  bed;  I  told 
them  how  to  unfold  the  bed;  then  the  doctor  put  a  saturated  cloth  on  the  wounded 
part  of  my  head;  I  told  them  to  get  towels  and  put  them  on  the  pillow  to  prevent 
soiling  it. "  Then  I  began  to  be  very  delirious  [patient  now  passes  from  hypnotic  into 
a  delirious  state]  and  talked  incessantly  about  a  railroad  accident;  my  husband  is 
constantly  on  the  road,  and  I  have  worried  sometimes  about4t.  I  repeated  the  same 
things  over,  saying  the  railroad  switch  was  wrong,  etc.  This  delirium  lasted  about 
an  hour.  The'surgeon  arrived,  and  on  putting  his  finger  between  the  scalp  and  skull 
I  felt  a  flash  of  lightning  and  saw  it.  I  said,  "I  can  not  stand  this  pain,"  and  then  I 
became  conscious  for  the  first  time  of  the  injury  on  the  back  of  my  head.  I  was  in 
agony;  I  could  feel  distinctly  a  grating  when  his  finger  was  put  under  the  scalp, 
and  on  pressure  in  one  spot  "there  was  a  bubbling  sensation  that  seemed  to  shoot 
right  over  the  brain.  During  this  time  I  was  conscious,  but  did  not  see  anything. 
It  is  three  weeks  since  the  accident  occurred,  and  I  have  had  headache  continually, 
being  a  reecho  of  the  old  pain.  When  I  try  to  read,  the  right  eye  sees  double;  my 
head  feels  double;  the  wounded  side  feels  thick;  1  have  had  very  unpleasant d ream's 
since. 

According  to  the  description  of  the  surgeon,  the  wound  was  on  the 
right  parietal  protuberance  over  the  third  descending  convolution:  it 
was  a  contusion. 

Inquiries  of  those  who  saw  the  accident  and  subsequent  events  con- 
firm the  statement  of  the  patient.  When  picked  up  her  eyes  were 
closed;  then  water  was  poured  on  her  head,  and  she  opened  her  eyes; 
she  could  not  quite  remember  her  husband's  name;  then  she  said  she 
felt  better  and  went  and  washed  her  face,  etc.,  as  already  described. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  states  of  consciousness:  First,  uncon- 
sciousness at  time  of  accident;  then,  water  being  poured  on  her  head, 
patient  passes  into  the  hypnotic  state;  this  lasts  nearly  an  hour,  during 
which  she  so  conducts  herself  that  her  friends  do  not  suspect  but  that 
she  is  herself.  During  this  hypnotic  state  suggestibility  ma\^  be  said 
to  have  been  normal,  since  she  responded  to  everyone  naturally.  Her 
normal  self  seemed  to  control  her  hypnotic  self  fully;  this  latter  self 
was  the  only  one  during  the  hour  which  was  conscious. 

SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  DURING  HYPNOTIC  SLEEP. a 

I  desire  to  give  somewhat  in  detail  two  cases  of  surgical  operations 
during  hypnotic  sleep  by  Dr.  Schmeltz,  of  Nice. 

The  writer  may  be  allowed  to  say  that,  while  attending  clinics,  he 
has  witnessed  the  extraction  of  a  large,  painful  tooth  (b}T  Forel,  of 
Zurich)  during  hypnosis,  where  the  patient  who  was  an  intelligent 
trained  nurse,  had  not  the  least  consciousness  of  the  operation. 

While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  certain  cases  hypnotism  may  be 
as  serviceable  in  surgery  as  the  usual  anaesthetics,  we,  however,  do 
not  believe  that  it  is  generally  practicable.  But  it  is  interesting  to 
note  special  cases  under  special  conditions  in  which  it  has  been  useful. 

CASE  I.  Amputation  of  the  toeast. — Miss  M..  20  years  of  age,  born 
in  Italy,  consulted  Dr.  Schmeltz  for  a  swelling  in  the  right  breast. 
During  the  examination  of  her  malady,  which  was  a  very  large  sar- 
coma, he  observed  that  the  young  woman  could  very  easily  be  plunged 
into  a  hypnotic  state.  By  a  steady  gaze  and  a  few  downward  passes 
he  in  a  few  seconds  put  her  to  sleep,  catalepsy  and  anaesthesia  being 
apparently  complete.  As  treatment,  the  doctor  proposed  a  complete 

"Article  bv  writer  in  the  New  York  Medical  Journal. 


56  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

ablation  of  the  diseased  glands.  The  neighboring  glands  were  in  no 
way  hardened.  Her  general  condition  was  good,  and  there  was  no 
inherited  cancer  in  the  family. 

The  young  woman,  with  the  consent  of  her  parents,  readily  agreed 
to  be  operated  upon  under  hypnotic  anaesthesia. 

Desiring  to  be  absolutely  sure  of  the  success  of  the  operation,  Dr. 
Schmeltz  hypnotized  his  patient  at  intervals  of  two  and  three  days, 
and  was  successful,  especially  as  to  the  anaesthesia — in  fact,  disinfected 
pins  were  stuck  deep  into  different  parts  of  her  body  withou*  produc- 
ing a  shadow  of  pain. 

On  the  day  set  for  the  operation,  in  spite  of  the  suggestion  made 
the  day  before  for  the  young  woman  to  be  at  the  doctor's  office  at  7.30 
a.  m.,  she  did  not  arrive  until  9,  and  then  entered  reluctantly.  Her 
parents  had  indiscreetly  told  her  of  the  time  set  for  the  operation,  and 
it  was  impossible  to  obtain  complete  anaesthesia.  It  was  not  until  after 
the  departure  of  the  other  physician,  whom  Dr.  Schmeltz  had  invited 
to  be  present,  that  she  regained  confidence.  The  anaesthesia  was  then 
produced,  and,  owing  to  a  suggestion  which  led  her  to  believe  that  the 
operation  would  be  postponed  a  week,  all  fear  disappeared.  She 
declared  during  the  sleep  that  she  had  been  terrified  by  the  thought 
of  the  operation,  and  therefore  could  not  sleep  as  desired.  She  gave 
assurance  that  the  operation  could  take  place  next  day,  because  on 
waking  she  was  convinced  that  she  had  eight  days  before  her. 

The  next  day  she  arrived  at  the  hour  fixed  during  the  sleep.  Anaes- 
thesia was  complete  from  the  first,  and  the  patient  seemed  admirably 
disposed. 

Two  other  physicians  assisted  Dr.  Schmeltz.  After  a  minute  exam- 
ination of  the  hands  and  diseased  part,  Dr.  Schmeltz  made  the  classic 
oval  incision  for  the  amputation  of  the  breast,  which  permitted  him 
to  take  out  that  much-diseased  organ  with  the  aponeurosis  of  the 
large  pectoral.  A  thorough  examination  of  the  axilla  showed  that  the 
ganglia  were  not  diseased.  After  five  tubes  were  inserted  the  wound 
was  closed  by  means  of  32  metallic  sutures.  During  the  entire  oper- 
ation, which  lasted  about  an  hour,  the  part  was  continually  washed 
with  a  sublimate  solution.  Ten  arteries  were  involved  and  were 
twistec!  by  the  forceps.  After  a  fresh  wash  of  sublimate  had  been 
applied  the  region  was  covered  with  iodoform,  making  an  antiseptic 
and  compressive  dressing. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  operation  the  assistants  were  somewhat 
excited,  and  begged  the  operator  to  have  chloroform  and  ether  in 
reserve;  but  they  were  quickly  reassured  when  they  saw  the  patient 
absolutel}'  insensible  in  an  anaesthesia  such  as  is  obtained  by  large 
doses  of  chloroform. 

Dr.  Schmeltz  operated  slowly  and  at  -his  ease.  The  patient  appeared 
to  feel  very  gay,  and  from  time  to  time  laughed  loudly,  as  though  to 
testify  that  she  felt  no  pain.  To  aid  the  operation  she  took  the  most 
favorable  attitudes,  extending  her  right  arm,  and  thus  avoiding  the 
necessity^  of  having  it  held. 

The  results  of  the  operation  were  satisfactory  in  every  respect;  her 
temperature  did  not  rise  above  37.3°  C.  (99.1°  F.}.  The  tubes  were 
withdrawn  the  third  day.  Until  a  complete  cure  was  effected,  which 
was  on  the  fifteenth  day,  but  one  dressing  was  made,  consisting  of 
iodoform  and  absorbent  cotton.  The  sutures  were  removed  as  soon 
as  the  reunion  was  complete. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  57 

Throughout  the  operation  the  patient's  face  was  very  pallid,  but  the 
pupils  or  her  e}^es  did  not  dilate,  and  her  pulse  was  not  feeble. 

A  number  of  physicians  saw  Miss  M.  at  this  time;  they  also  saw  the 
tumor,  which  weighed  about  4  pounds. 

CASE  II.  Ectropion  of  the  lower  left  eyelid. — Miss  V.,  18  years  of 
age,  was  attacked  by  ectropion  when  10  months  old,  as  a  result  of  an 
abscess  in  the  suborbital  region,  which  had  been  lanced  by  a  physician. 

She  had  undergone  two  operations  and  the  lid  fell  lower.  When 
she  consulted  the  doctor  she  told  him  that  she  had  suffered  so  much 
from  the  inhalations  of  chloroform  that  she  would  never  again  undergo 
an  anaesthesia  produced  in  that  way. 

A  seance  of  ten  minutes  sufficed  to  convince  the  doctor  that  the 
operation  could  take  place  during  a  state  of  complete  magnetic  insen- 
sibility. Dr.  Macario  and  Dr.  Huillet  were  invited  to  be  present  at 
the  operation. 

All  the  usual  antiseptic  measures  were  taken,  and,  after  putting  the 
patient  in  a  profound  sleep,  her  eye  was  washed  with  a  sublimate  solu- 
tion of  6  to  1,000.  The  patient,  in  a  state  of  somnambulism,  at  once 
said,  u That  is  a  very  strong  remedy  that  you  use."  When  asked  if 
the  irrigation  burned,  she  said,  "  Not  at  all;  I  do  not  feel  the  slightest 
pain." 

A  V-shaped  incision  was  made  in  the  lid  and  the  fragment  removed. 
Three  pins  were  then  placed  parallel  through  the  ends  of  the  wound 
and  a  metallic  thread  united  them.  A  wash  of  sublimate  with  vas- 
eline an'd  iodoform  was  spread  on  the  seam;  a  dry  antiseptic  dressing 
held  the  eye  immovable.  The  pins  and  wire  were  removed  on  the 
fifth  day;  the  wound  was  thoroughly  united,  and  healed  without  the 
shadow  of  a  complication  and  without  a  drop  of  pus. 

The  operation  was  performed  slowly,  and  the  e3re,  without  any  aid 
whatever,  remained  wide  open,  in  spite  of  the  contact  with  the  instru- 
ments. 

Owing  to  the  pallor  of  the  face  and  quasi  absence  of  respiration,  it 
was  for  a  moment  believed  that  the  patient  had  fainted,  but  the  large, 
soft  pulse  showed  that  this  pseudo-syncope  was  but  the  effect  of  hyp- 
nosis. The  patient  did  not  feel  the  slightest  pain,  and  when  she  awoke 
she  would  not  believe  that  she  had  been  operated  upon. 

THE  POWER  OF  SUGGESTION. a 

The  term  " suggestion"  is  often  preferred  to  that  of  "hypnotism," 
because  it  is  the  fundamental  factor  in  hypnotism.  Suggestions  may 
be  made  by  signs  which  are  visual,  auditive,  olfactory,  or  tactile. 
Hypnotism  may  be  defined  as  an  artificially  induced  sleep  in  which 
there  is  suggestibility  and  hallucinability  with  insensibility  to  most 
impressions,  and  upon  waking  remembrance  of  little  or  nothing  that 
has  taken  place. 

Dunmd  *de  Gros,  while  hypnotizing  an  individual  whom  he  had  pre- 
viously directed  to  gaze  steadfastly  at  a  small  brilliant  object  for  the 
space  of  fifteen  minutes,  said  to  him  in  a  positive  tone,  "you  will  run 
on  a  gallop  and  you  can  not  stop  without  my  permission." 

That  which  he  declared  took  place.  The  attainment  of  such  a  result 
involves  as  a  first  condition  the  participation  of  the  consciousness  and 

a  Article  by  writer  in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal. 


58  A    PLAN    FOK    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

intelligence  of  the  subject;  this  is  proven  by  the  fact  that  the  affirma- 
tion has  no  effect  until  comprehended.  If  spoken  to  in  a  language  he 
does  not  understand,  the  subject  makes  no  reference  to  the  suggestion. 
For  the  success  of  the  method,  in  suggestion  experiment  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  subject  have  a  certain  moral  aid,  a  certain  faith,  that  he 
believe,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  incredible  assurances  that  are  made 
him.  The  affirmation  is  not  generally  effective  unless  articulated  in  a 
peremptory  manner  and  by  a  person  whose  voice,  face,  and  entire 
bearing  suggest  conviction  and  persuasion.  It  is  a  universal  fact  that 
personal  magnetism  is  a  powerful  aid  to  the  hypnotist.  To  an  old 
practitioner  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  disposition  to  submit  to  sugges- 
tion lies  in  individual  credibility  and  authority.  Thus,  in  order  that 
the  suggestion  may  operate  effectually,  it  is  indispensable  that  its 
expression  be  comprehended  by  the  subject  and  that  it  obtain  a  certain 
adhesion  on  his  part.  To  induce  hypnosis  through  suggestion  the 
attention  of  the  subject  must  be  fixed  on  one  idea,  exactly  as  one  puts 
oneself  into  the  autohypnotic  state  necessary  to  success  in  a  spiritual- 
istic seance.  The  attention  must  be  concentrated  and  one  must  think 
only  of  the  phenomena  to  be  produced. 

This  may  be  one  reason  why  the  subjects  the  most  sensitive  to  hyp- 
notism are  also  those  who  best  realize  spiritualistic  experiences.  All 
methods  to  induce  hypnotic  sleep  aim  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  subject 
and  to  pla}r  on  his  imagination. 

In  the  neurotic  the  attention  frequently  can  not  be  concentrated  for 
any  length  of  time.  Contradictory  ideas  prevade  the  mind-,  and  the 
imagination  wanders  continually.  Thus,  neurotics,  though  very  sug- 
gestible when  awake,  are  difficult  to  hypnotize. 

EMOTION   AND    SUGGESTION. 

Emotion  as  a  physiologic  state  was  studied  by  Professors  James  and 
Lange,  who  claimed  that  it  is  but  the  consciousness  of  the  neurovascu- 
lar  variations  which  are  produced  in  the  organisms.  Among  the  emo- 
tions, there  are  two  which  have  a  particularly  paralyzing  action  on  the 
will — sadness  and  fear.  Besides  these  two  fundamental  types  there 
are  several  secondary  ones.  Thus,  with  melancholia  there  is  depres- 
sion, discouragement — a  feeling  of  weakness  and  powerlessness.  With 
fear  their  is  inquietude,  apprehension,  timidity,  anguish,  and  terror. 
All  of  these  emotions  may  have  an  inhibitory  action  on  the  will. 
Sadness,  according  to  Lange,  is  an  abnormal  constriction  of  the  small 
blood  vessels  producing  a  general  anemic  condition,  which  shows  itself 
in  the  pallor  of  the  tissues,  in  coldness,  a  diminution  of  secretions, 
dyspnea,  certain  digestive  troubles,  and  a  diminution  of  voluntary 
energy.  Fear  may  also  be  due  to  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  small 
blood  vessels. 

ABOULIA    AND    EMOTION. 

Aboulia  is  a  condition  in  which  volition  is  impaired  or  lost.  It  may 
be  divided  into  general  and  special  aboulia.  By  general  aboulia  is 
meant  that  state  in  which  depressive  emotion  is  so  developed  that  it 
plays  a  preponderant  role  in  physical  life  and  constantly  interferes  in 
the  exercise  of  voluntary  activity.  The  native  instability  of  the  vaso- 
motor  system  disturbs  the  vascular  equilibrium  from  the  slightest 
cause,  so  that  there  is  always  a  quantity  of  loose  emotion  which  is  read y 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  59 

to  attach  itself  to  the  idea  which  commands  the  act  and  to  influence 
it  in  its  realization.  This  original  tendency  to  emotion  may  exist  in 
various  degrees.  When  very  prominent,  it  corresponds  to  what  may 
be  described  as  "nervous  anguish."  When  emotion  is  thlis  brought 
into  play ,  apropos  of  a  voluntary  determination,  it  immediately  opposes 
its  inhibitory  action  to  the  dynamic  power  of  the  will,  and  a  struggle 
results  at  times  extremely  painful  and  accompanied  by  characteristic 
symptoms — pallor,  cold  perspiration,  oppression,  and  palpitation. 

The  timid,  who  almost  always  have  aboulia  through  emotion,  know 
this  uneasiness.  They  know  that  the  most  deliberately  planned  act 
may  be  suddenly  prevented,  at  the  moment  of  execution,  by  a  stupid 
emotion  which  seizes  the  throat,  crushes  the  breast,  presses  the  heart, 
covers  them  with  cold  perspiration,  and  deprives  them  of  all  power. 
Sometimes  by  energetic  force  they  succeed  in  overcoming  this  inhibi- 
tion; frequently,  however,  they  are  incapable  of  overcoming  it  and  are 
constrained  to  renounce  their  plans.  All  reasoning  is  vain;  they  are 
obliged  to  yield  to  this  force,  which  is  stronger  than  they.  Emotion 
does  not  always  attain  to  such  intensity,  and  manifests  itself  under 
other  circumstances  by  a  resistance  which  interposes  like  a  brake 
between  the  idea  and  the  act.  Thus  the  timid  seldom  realize  what  they 
desire.  In  them  nervous  energy,  instead  of  spending  itself  in  acts,  is 
transformed  into  vasomotoric  phenomena.  In  special  aboulia,  emotion 
is  not  generalized,  but  localized  in  a  constant  manner  in  this  or  that 
territory  of  the  voluntary  activit}7.  It  is  not  a  permanent  infirmity, 
but  an  intermittent  and  elective  incapacity  to  act. 

The  following  cases  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  power  of  suggestion: 

Case  1. — Durand  de  Gros,  taking  the  vegetative  life  as  the  objective  of  a  disturbing 
suggestion,  said  to  a  subject  (making  him  swallow  a  glass  of  water  and  a  bread  pill): 
"  You  have  taken  a  powerful  purgative,  which  will  act  very  quickly,"  and  the  event 
did  not  fail  to  follow  the  announcement. 

CASES   OF   CURE    OF   OBSESSION    BY    SUGGESTION. 

We  give  below  some  cases  of  persons,  healthy  up  to  a  certain  epoch, 
being  more  or  less  under  the  domination  of  ideas  of  which  they  could 
not  disabuse  themselves,  and  which  forced  them  to  commit  acts  con- 
trary to  their  wills.  These  cases  were  treated  by  Dr.  Brain  well: 

Case  2. — M.  A.,  aged  24  years,  suffered  from  disordered  glands  in  the  neck  and 
face.  Cured  of  these,  he  went  to  the  seashore,  where  he  fell  and  was  wounded  in 
the  perineum.  This  formed  an  abscess,  which  opened  and  let  the  pus  enter  the  ure- 
thra. The  doctor  found  a  very  bad-looking  wound  by  which  the  urine  escaped.  He 
told  him  to  use  a  catheter  regularly  and  the  wound  would  heal.  Sometimes  before 
he  could  introduce  the  catheter  the  urine  escaped  by  the  wound.  This  became  more 
frequent,  and  at  last  he  allowed  the  urine  to  escape,  no  matter;  where  he  was.  This 
was  often  the  case  at  night.  He  was  hypnotized  at  the  first  seance.  While  sleep- 
ing, it  was  suggested  to  him  to  think  no  more  of  this  thing,  to  retain  the  urine  for 
eight  hours,  and  to  pass  it  by  the  catheter.  After  this  seance  the  patient  was  abso- 
lutely free  from  his  obsession,  and  the  wound  healed  completely  in  a  year  without 
any  operation. 

CaseS. — M.  B.,  a  young  man  of  athletic  habits,  who  loved  all  kinds  of  sport,  as 
bicycle,  football,  etc.,  lost  his  mother  by  cancer  of  the  breast.  Fear  seized  him  that 
he  would  contract  the  same  disease,  and  he  came  to  believe  that  he  had  a  cancer  in 
in  the  left  breast.  He  seldom  left  his  room,  and  when  he  went  out  he  wore  an 
overcoat  for  fear  that  cold  might  aggravate  the  supposed  disease.  One  day  he  thought 
he  felt  pains  in  his  arm,  and  thenceforth  carried  it  in  a  sling.  Upon  examination 
no  trace  of  cancer  was  found,  but  the  muscles  of  the  arm  were  atrophied  from  lack 
of  exercise.  Being  easy  to  hypnotize,  he  was  quickly  put  to  sleep  and  cured. 

Case  4- — M.  D.,  aged  42  years,  suffered  from  infancy  from  an  obsession  which  made 


60  A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

life  intolerable.  *He  fancied  that  everybody  watched  him  and  criticised  him.  If 
anyone  looked  at  him,  even  a  child,  he  blushed.  The  idea  that  Home  one  might 
look  at  him  also  made  him  blush.  This  obsession  forced  him  to  give  up  his  business 
and  he  was  haunted  by  thoughts  of  suicide.  This  man  was  cured  after  long-con- 
tinued treatment,  for,  being  refactory  to  sleep,  he  was  only  brought  under  its 
influence  at  the  fifteenth  seance.  He  had  no  return  of  the  trouble. 

A  somewhat  analogous  case  is  that  of  a  merchant  who  fancied  that  he  committed 
errors  to  his  disadvantage  in  the  affairs  which  he  undertook.  After  he  had  accom- 
plished what  he  undertook  he  felt  embarrassed  and  believed  that  everyone  noticed  it. 
This  last  idea  possessed  him  equally  when  he  went  about  in  the  world.  He  was 
entirely  cured  in  six  months. 

Most  of  the  experiments  were  successful.  Those  whom  Bramwell 
did  not  cure  were  refactory  to  hypnotism.  In  these  cases  he  did  not 
succeed  in  provoking  sleep,  the  mind  of  the  sick  man  being  so  occupied 
by  his  obsessions  that  he  could  not  hear  what  was  said. 

Many  persons  are  predjudiced  against  hypnotism  and  decide  to  use 
it  only  when  all  else  fails.  Almost  all  patients  have  had  some  violent 
emotion.  With  one,  it  was  the  death  of  a  member  of  his  family  which 
produced  the  obsession  that  his  wife  would  die  also.  With  another, 
it  was  an  emotion  caused  by  the  sight  of  a  drunkard  on  a  railroad, 
which  produced  the  idea  of  never  being  able  to  travel  on  a  train  again. 

Berillon  insists  that  these  obsessions  are  generally  associated  with 
the  daily  occupations  of  the  sick  person,  and  show  a  pronounced  pro- 
fessional character. 

The  greater  number  of  authorities  say  that  an  obsession  is  different 
from  a  mental  disease  in  that  the  patient  considers  his  obsession  as 
independent  of  his  being.  But  tbis  Taw  has  exceptions.  One  of  Dr. 
Bramwell's  patients  became  superstitious.  Little  by  little  he  came  to 
attribute  his  bad  times  to  bad  days.  There  are  many  superstitions 
which  do  not  show  other  symptoms  of  disease  or  degeneracy.  The 
unassimilation  of  an  idea  of  obsession  sometimes  constitutes  a  morbid 
element,  and  this,  it  appears,  depends  rather  upon  the  individual  and 
peculiar  circumstances  than  upon  the  obsession  itself. 

Obsessions  may  consist  in  a  hypertrophy  of  the  attention;  the  idea 
itself  is  normal,  but  its  quantity,  intensity,  and  degree  are  not  so. 
Everybody  can  not  have  obsessions;  for  example,  idiots,  who  possess 
little  voluntary  attention.  Many  very  intelligent  patients  are  not  pre- 
vented by  their  obsessions  from  doing  valuable  work.  The  greater 
number  are  emotional,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  emotional  brain 
is  a  degenerate  brain  and  that  the  accidents  to  which  it  is  exposetl  are 
the  consequences  of  a  finer  constitution  than  that  of  the  ordinaiy  brain. 

AUTO-HYPNOTISM    NOT    ALWAYS   ADVISABLE. 

Case  5. — Dr.  Bonjour  often  suggested  to  a  patient  that  no  one  else  could  hypnotize 
him.  One  day  the  young  man  received  a  visit  from  a  relative,  who  was  pleased  to 
hear  of  his  cure.  He  told  him  how  he  had  been  treated:  "I  had  only  to  count  20 
to  be  in  catalepsy,"  said  he;  "stop,  I  willshowyou — "  and  calling  a  servant — "Emily! 
go  set  the  electric  alarm  at  2  o'clock.  I  am  going  to  hypnotize  myself,  and  that  will 
wake  me  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour."  In  twenty  minutes  he  closed  his  eyes  and  his 
body  was  relaxed.  At  the  end  of  several  minutes  the  maid,  instead  of  executing  the 
order  received,  went  into  his  mother's  room  and  rang  the  electric  bell  several  times. 
The  room  communicated  with  the  chamber  of  the  hypnotized  man.  He  rose  imme- 
diately, ran  into  his  mother's  chamber  crying:  "The  robbers!  where  are  they?" 
Seeing  no  one,  he  dragged  the  furniture  about  and  reached  everywhere,  went  into 
another  room,  looked  under  the  beds,  went  to  the  cellar,  then,  seeing  his  brother, 
threw  himself  upon  him  forcibly  to  injure  him.  When  Dr.  Bonjour  arrived  the 
attack  had  lasted  three  or  four  hours.  The  doctor  could  not  awake  him.  At  last  he 
awoke  and  said  that  upon  hearing  the  bell,  which  his  mother  never  used,  he  believed 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  61 

her  to  be  in  danger  from  robbers;  hence  his  attack.  He  could  not  recall  what  he  had 
done  during  the  attack.  After  having  calmed  him  and  promised  that  he  was  cured, 
Dr.  Bonjour  advised  him  never  to  undergo  this  experience  again,  and  suggested  to 
him  the  uselessness  of  his  efforts  to  hypnotize  himself.  The  patient  tried  several 
times  to  count,  as  he  was  accustomed  to  do,  without  succeeding  in  putting  himself 
to  sleep. 

As  Bonjour  could  not  be  often  with  patients  who  lived  far  away,  he 
suggested  to  them  the  case  of  self -hypnotism  by  counting,  for  example, 
20  or  30  or  more,  in  order  that  if  the}r  awake  the}7  could  put  them- 
selres  to  sleep  again  immediately.  It  is  necessary  to  suggest  to 
patients  that  no  one  else  can  hypnotize  them;  but  in  .some  cases  it  may 
be  wise  to  suggest  in  addition  that  they  can  not  hypnotize  themselves. 

HYPNOTISM    AND    MORAL    EDUCATION. 

Suggestion  may  be  a  moral  agent  and  educator,  or  a  curative  agent 
of  physical  ills.  As  an  illustration  of  this  we  give  the  following  case 
of  Bourdon: 

Case  6. — B.,  aged  13  years,  had  always  been  anaemic  and  nervous;  from  the  age  of 
2  years  she  slept  badly  and  was  very  restless  at  night.  She  was  the  daughter  of  an 
arthritic  mother,  who  also  suffered  from  gravel,  and  of  a  father  addicted  to  drink. 
At  the  age  of  7  years  she  had  articular  and  visceral  rheumatism,  which  seemed  to 
have  affected  the  left  side  of  her  heart.  A  little  later  she  had  a  severe  fright;  her 
father,  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  had  struck  his  father-in-law  with  a  gun.  Later  she 
had  dizziness,  syncope,  then  great  nervous  crises,  convulsions,  palpitations  of  the 
heart  at  any  sound  or  movement,  constant  fear,  and  loss  of  consciousness  when  play- 
ing or  at  rest.  Her  character  changed;  she  became  peevish  and  choleric,  especially 
at  the  approach  of  the  crises.  She  ate  very  little  and  did  not  go  to  the  closet.  Her 
nose  frequently  bled,  increasing  her  anaemia  and  sense  of  oppression.  At  the  age  of 
12  she  had  long  periods  of  sleeping;  she  cried  in  her  sleep,  had  violent  nervous 
attacks,  always  announced  by  greater  impatience  and  fretfulness.  In  a  word,  she 
had  hysteric  somnambulism.  "  She  was  rude  and  unamiable,  disobedient,  idle,  dirty, 
although  a  little  coquette,  combing  her  hair  every  instant;  she  bit  her  nails;  she 
ran  after  boys.  It  was  not  known  whether  she  practiced  onanism.  She  had, 
besides,  profuse  hemorrhages  from  the  nose  and  difficult  menstruation;  her  monthly 
periods  she  had  once  at  the  age  of  13;  they  had  never  returned.  Hypnotism  was 
difficult,  sleep  was  not  at  all  profound,  but  it  increased  a  little  at  each  new  seance. 
The  operator  looked  at  her,  and  told  her  to  sleep;  also  used  his  hand.  He  said  to 
her,  insisting  upon  it  often,  that  she  must  not  sleep  during  the  day,  but  only  at 
night,  as  other  people  did;  that  she  should  not  be  any  more  afraid  in  the  evening 
or  at  night  than  during  the  day.  He  suggested  to  her  amiability,  goodness,  gentle- 
ness, thoughtfulness,  affection  for  her  relations,  thankfulness  to  them  for  their  kind- 
ness, obedience,  docility,  cleanliness  without  coquetting,  the  care  of  her  hair  only 
in  the  morning,  love  of  work,  and  the  desire  to  do  good,  horror  of  evil,  distaste  for 
biting  her  nails,  indifference  toward  boys;  then,  that  she  should  have  no  more  hem- 
orrhages from  the  nose;  that  the  blood  should  take  its  natural  course;  that  her 
appetite  should  return  and  increase;  that  she  should  digest  her  food  properly  and 
go  morning  and  evening  to  attend  to  the  calls  of  nature;  that  she  should  have  no 
more  palpitations  of  the  heart — in  a  word,  everything  that  might  redeem  the  situa- 
tion as  much  from  a  moral  as  from  a  physical  point  of  view.  These  suggestions  were 
repeated  several  times,  softly,  but  in  a  manner  to  impress  them  upon  her  mind,  and 
this  prolonged  her  sleep  several  hours  each  day.  These  seances  were  repeated  daily 
for  ten  days,  then  weekly,  then  semimonthly,  then  at  intervals  more  or  less  distant. 
Each  time  some  ground  was  gained.  The  crises  were  less  and  less  frequent  and  less 
and  less  strong.  At  last  perseverance  was  rewarded  by  good  results,  and  as  the 
younjr  patient  seemed  to  acquire  a  taste  for  sleeping,  fearing  that  it  might  grow  into 
a  habit,  it  was  suggested  to  her  that,  as  she  was  growing  better  and  better,  she  did 
not  need  to  sleep  so  often.  This  treatment  was  accompanied  by  a  tonic  and  massage 
of  the  body.  At  the  beginning  a  blister  was  applied  near  the  heart,  with  the  hope 
of  destroying  or  diminishing  the  valvular  exudations  left  by  the  rheumatism.  Sev- 
eral times  by  the  aid  of  suggestion  the  wound  (dried  up  by  the  blister)  was  made  to  flow 
and  cease  to  flow  as  often  as  it  seemed  necessary.  The  heart  grew  better  and  better, 
and  whether  the  action  of  these  two  means  be  illusion  or  not,  there  was  scarcely 
any  palpitation.  The  hypnotic  sleep  was  each  time  easier  and  better,  though  never 
deep. 


62  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

The  young  girl  was  completely  cured;  she  was  transformed  physic- 
ally and  morally.  There  were  about  forty -two  seances  in  all.  Thus 
hypnotic  suggestion  can  be  a  salutary  aid  in  moral  education.  Experi- 
ments have  already  shown  to  what  extent  the  passions,  instincts,  tastes, 
and  psychic  faculties  can  be  definitely  modified  by  hypnotic  suggestion, 
and  one  can  riot  help  smiling  at  the  protestations,  as  eloquent  as  they 
are  incompetent,  against "  the  outrage  upon  the  rights  of  humanity  by 
the  practice  of  hypnotism." 

STUDY  OF  THE  HYPNOTIZED  STATE.  a 

Pfypnologists  have  frequently  expressed  regret  at  not  being  able  to 
procure  personal  and  exact  observations  made  during  hypnosis.  The 
difficulty  is  that  profound  hypnotic  sleep  generally  renders  personal 
observations  impossible  because  of  amnesia  whjch  accompanies  it. 
Even  when  the  hypnosis  is  light  and  does  not  exclude  all  memory  it  is 
difficult  to  procure  information  from  sincere  persons  accustomed  to 
psychological  observations.  The  majority  of  subjects  are  sick  people, 
more  or  less  nervous,  who  see  nothing  in  the  experiments  but  a  pre- 
text to  be  theatrical,  and  consequently  their  testimony  must  be  taken 
with  caution.  As  a  result  it  is  very  difficult  to  analyze  the  suggestion, 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  perceived  by  the  subject,  and  the  mechanism 
by  which  it  is  executed. 

A  possible  way  to  escape  these  difficulties  may  be,  first,  in  not  taking 
sick  people  as  subjects,  but  persons  accustomed  to  psychological  stud- 
ies and  exact  analysis;  second,  in  simplifying  the  suggestion  as  much 
as  possible,  so  that  the  accessory  phenomena  do  not  take  a  preponder- 
ant part  and  thus  mask  the  principal  phenomenon;  and,  finally,  in 
placing  the  subject  in  a  condition  which,  if  not  normal  waking,  is  not 
a  state  of  profound  hypnosis,  and  in  which  he  retains  absolute  liberty 
of  mind  and  his  faculties  of  attention  and  analysis,  the  memory  being 
neither  abolished  nor  weakened. 

To  this  end  we  give  a  number  of  experiments  by  Dr.  Joire  on  his 
pupils.  At  the  first  seance  there  were  present  16  students,  the  major- 
ity belonging  to  the  faculty  of  medicine,  the  others  to  law  and  letters. 

Mr.  C.,  a  medical  student,  offered  to  serve  as  a  subject.  His  eyes 
were  covered  by  a  band  made  expressly  for  the  purpose — a  double 
black  cloth  mask  with  an  opening  for  the  nose,  and  on  each  side  a 
large  pad  of  cloth  which  filled  up  the  hollow  between  the  cheek  bone 
and  the  nose — and  the  subject  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 
Longitudinal  passes  were  then  made  before  his  face  and  the  whole 
length  of  his  body;  then  his  hands  were  held  a  few  minutes  regarding 
him  fixedly. 

The  doctor  moved  away  and  stood  three  or  four  j^ards  in  front  of 
him,  at  the  same  time  mentally  suggesting  that  he  raise  the  left  arm. 
In  a  few  seconds  this  arm,  which  hung  by  his  side,  began  to  show 
successive  movements — one  would  say  contractions  such  as  a  feeble 
current  of  electricity  would  produce  passing  in  the  flexor  muscles  of 
the  hand  and  forearm.  After  these  movements  the  arm  moved  out 
from  the  body  and  rose  without  bending  to  a  horizontal  position  as 
though  moved  by  an  invisible  spring.  While  the  left  arm  was  thus 
raised  it  was  suggested  that  the  subject  raise  the  right  arm,  and  shortly 

a Article  by  writer  in  the  Medical  Summary,  Philadelphia. 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  63 

it  went  through  the  same  movements  with  remarkable  precision.  Then 
a  like  suggestion  was  made  which  caused  the  arms  to  fall  in  their 
former  position.  They  fell  slowly  with  the  same  automatic  move- 
ment, not  as  they  would  if  inert  and  fatigued  by  their  own  weight. 

This  all  took  place  in  full  light  and  absolute  silence. 

This  subject  gave  an  account  of  his  sensations.  When  the  passes 
were  made  he  felt  a  sort  of  general  numbness  or-  dizziness;  then  the 
left  arm  obeyed  the  influence  of  a  strange  impetus  and  was  pulled  for- 
ward and  upward  by  force.  The  force  then  ceased  to  be  felt  and  the 
movement  of  the  arm  was  arrested.  The  same  force  was  felt  in  the 
right  arm,  and  after  a  few  seconds  it  was  felt  in  both  arms  in  an  inverse 
sense,  which  determined  the  lowering  and  returning  of  the  arms  to 
their  normal  position. 

The  second  experiment  was  made  on  Mr.  B.,  a  medical  student. 
The  same  preparations  were  made  as  in  the  first  case.  The  subject  was 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  room  well  in  the  light.  The  doctor  then 
stood  three  yards  in  front  of  him,  leaning  with  his  hands  on  the  back 
of  a  chair  behind  him,  and  suggested  that  he  should  raise  the  right  leg, 
the  doctor  himself  accompanying  the  suggestion  by  the  movement. 
In  from  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds  the  subject  rested  all  the  weight  of 
his  body  on  the  left  leg,  bent  the  right  knee  till  only  the  toe  touched, 
and  finally  lifted  it  entirely.  The  bandage  was  taken  off  and  the  doctor 
breathed  on  his  eyes,  and~he  then  related  his  sensations.  He  did  not 
emphasize  the  numbness,  which,  however,  he  declares  he  felt  before 
the  suggestion,  but  he  distinctly  felt  an  unexpected  and  involuntary 
contraction  of  the  muscles  in  the  thigh,  which  caused  the  raising  and 
bending  of  the  knee. 

At  the  second  seance  M.  X. ,  a  medical  student,  who  had  been  present 
at  the  first,  said  he  was  not  convinced  of  the  reality  of  the  impulse 
which  the  subjects  claimed  to  feel.  He  did  not  doubt  their  good 
faith,  but  thought  there  must  be  auto-suggestion  and  that  the  spon- 
taneous movement  only  chanced  to  be  the  one  desired,  etc.  Dr.  Joire 
proposed  to  repeat  the  experiments  on  him.  He  being  skeptical  and 
prejudiced  against  auto-suggestion,  a  successful  experiment  would 
have  all  the  more  value.  M.  X.  was  blindfolded  (he  declared  that  he 
was  convinced  that  to  try  an  experiment  on  him  was  useless)  and  passes 
made  on  the  head  and  body,  he  at  the  same  time  being  told  not  to 
imitate  from  memory  and  not  to  resist  any  distinct  impulse.  The 
operator  tnen  stood  about  two  yards  from  him  and  began  a  mental 
suggestion  to  move  the  left  arm  out,  but  parallel  with  the  body,  and 
then  to  bend  the  forearm  up  onto  the  arm.  In  a  very  few  moments 
the  automatic  movements  began,  slowly,  but  without  hesitation. 

When  asked  why  he  made  the  movement  M.  X.  confessed,  with 
some  surprise,  that  he  had  felt  a  force  drawing  his  arm  in  the  direc- 
tion followed,  that  he  at  first  resisted,  but  the  impulse  continued  to  act 
and  became  very  strong,  when  he  no  longer  resisted. 

One  of  the  subjects  who  had  served  before  was  then  led  from  the 
room,  while  those  remaining  made  a  chalk  line  with  numerous  curves 
on  the  floor.  When  all  was  ready  the  blindfolded  subject  was  led  into 
the  room  and  placed  at  one  extremity  of  the  line.  The  operator,  with- 
out touching  the  subject,  fixed  his  attention  on  the  line  which  he  was 
to  follow.  This  line  began  at  the  door,  described  a  circle  to  the  left, 
turned  to  the  right,  and  again  a  large  circle  to  the  left.  The  subject 


64  A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

followed  the  line,  step  by  step,  very  exactly,  stopping  and  seeming  to 
hesitate  at  the  curves. 

The  same  experiments  were  repeated  several  times  with  different 
subjects,  which  permitted  the  operator  to  gather  the  impressions  of 
each  under  exactly  the  same  conditions.  Each  of  the  subjects  experi- 
enced the  same  sensations  and  analyzed  them  in  the  same  way. 

It  is  of  great  interest  then  to  find  in  what  condition  the  subjects  are 
at  the  time  of  receiving  the  suggestion.  In  appearance  they  are  awake, 
and,  in  fact,  if  questioned  after  the  experiment,  would  unanimously 
reply  that  they  had  not  slept.  In  reality  they  were  not  in  a  sound 
sleep,  but  neither  were  they  in  a  normal  waking  condition.  The  proof 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  when  the  passes  were  made  they  all  experienced 
a  change;  as  they  said,  something  seemed  to  isolate  them,  and  there 
was  a  vague  numbness  and  tingling  all  over  the  body. 

The  subjects  were  in  a  state  which  has  been  described  as  medianic 
or  passive — the  attention  to  whatever  came  from  the  person  suggesting 
was  exalted  to  a  point  which  it  could  not  attain  in  a  normal  condition. 
It  is  probably  this  modification  of  the  subject  which  admits  of  the 
establishment  of  communication  between  himself  and  the  operator  by 
which  he  can  be  impressed  by  an  influence  purely  psychic.  This 
psychic  correspondence  between  several  individuals  does  not  appear 
to  be  abnormal  or  even  peculiar  to  the  hypnotic  state,  but  in  the 
4 'medianic"  state  there  is  an  orientation  peculiar  to  this  nervous 
influx,  and  at  the  same  time  a  concentration  of  force  toward  some  one 
individual. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  presence  of  another  person,  and  who 
makes  an  effort  contrary  to  the  suggestion,  considerably  hinders  the 
experiment  and  can  even  prevent  a  complete  success. 

Mental  suggestion  requires  a  considerable  effort  of  will  on  the.  part 
of  the  operator,  an  effort  which  must  be  sustained  without  interrup- 
tion throughout  the  time  required  for  the  suggestion. 

This  constant  effort  of  will,  this  fixit}^  of  the  attention,  concentrated 
on  a  single  object,  is  not  as  easy  as  may  be  imagined  and  requires  a 
certain  education  or  training. 

PEDAGOGIC    HYPNOTISM. a 

One  of  the  chief  workers  in  hypnotism  as  applied  to  pedagogics  is 
Dr.  Berillon,  of  Paris.  We  desire  in  the  main  to  present  his  ideas, 
but  before  doing  so,  the  writer  will  describe  briefly  a  visit  to  his  clinic. 

On  arriving  at  the  clinic  we  found  most  of  the  patients  already 
there.  The  doctor  remarked  we  could  visit  a  while  in  his  private 
office,  as  most  of  the  patients  would  hypnotize  themselves.  When 
we  entered  the  clinic  there  were  nine  or  ten  persons  of  different  ages 
and  sexes  who  had  been  looking  intensely  at  hypnotic  mirrors  or 
similar  contrivances,  and  most  of  them  were  already  asleep.  The 
fact  that  the  doctor  had  hypnotized  them  in  this  room  many  times 
and  with  the  aid  of  these  instruments,  the  fact  that  he  had  arrived, 
and  their  confidence  that  he  could  hypnotize  them  as  soon  as  he  came, 
all  of  these  conditions  enabled  most  of  them  to  put  themselves  to 
sleep.  The  doctor  then  proceeded  to  deepen  the  sleep  of  his  patients, 
making  various  suggestions  adopted  to  their  special  troubles. 

a  Article  by  writer  in  the  "Medical  Progress/'  Louisville,  Ky. 


A  PLAN  FOR  TTE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  65 

HYPNOTISM  USEFUL  FOR  ABNORMAL  CHILDREN. 

By  repeated  suggestions  during  hypnotic  sleep,  in  which  condition 
suggestions  have  more  weight  and  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  etfect, 
it  is  possible  to  develop  the  faculty  of  attention  and  to  correct  evil 
instincts  in  vicious,  unruly,  and  obstinate  children,  incapable  of  the 
least  attention  and  of  the  least  application.  There  are  as  many 
reasons  against  the  use  of  hypnotism  in  the  education  of  normal, 
healthy  children  as  there  are  reasons  for  its  employment  in  the  cases 
of  bad,  vicious,  or  sulky,  subjects.  It  is  expressly  and  emphatically 
stated  that  this  means  of  educating  a  child  must  not  be  resorted  to  till 
all  other  methods  have  failed,  and  must  always  be  applied  under  the 
direction  of  a  competent  and  experienced  physician.  Dr.  Berillon  has 
accomplished  by  means  of  suggestion  the  cure  of  cases  of  kleptomania, 
lying,  biting  of  the  finger  nails,  cowardice,  fear  of  the  dark,  etc.  It 
it  possible  through  the  hypnotic  state  to  modify  the  ideas  of  children, 
change  their  characters,  correct  acquired  habits,  and  form  new  ones; 
increase  the  power  of  attention  and  of  memory,  awaken  and  develop 
natural  aptitudes,  and  vary  the  intensity  and  modality  of  perception. 
There  are,  therefore,  in  hypnotism  the  elements  of  a  true  experi- 
mental pedagogy. 

The  object  of  the  use  of  suggestion  in  pedagogy  is  to  correct 
impulses  and  automatic  habits  in  children,  and  to  bring  out  their 
natural  aptitudes  arrested  in  their  development.  This  result  may  be 
brought  about  in  two  ways — first,  by  the  creation  of  psychical  inhibi- 
tory centers  and  the  cultivation  of  the  power  of  self-control,  and, 
second,  by  the  exercise  and  the  automatic  stimulation  of  psychic 
energy  and  the  excito-motory  functions. 

REQUISITES   OF   PEDAGOGIC   HYPNOTISM. 

Certain  fundamental  requisites  are  necessary  to  the  obtaining  of 
these  results.  To  begin  with,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  natural 
suggestibility  of  subjects.  In  order  thus  to  diagnose  their  suscepti- 
bility to  suggestion,  it  is  necessary  to  suggest  to  them,  in  the  waking 
state,  to  perform  in  spite  of  themselves  a  series  of  simple  acts. 
The  result  of  this  suggestion  gives  the  measure  of  their  suggesti- 
bility. In  certain  children  a  suggestibility  will  be  revealed  much 
greater  than  their  appearance  would  lead  one  to  expect.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  experiment  will  be  understood  when  the  fact  which  we 
give  as  an  actual  psychological  law  is  stated.  The  suggestibility  of  a 
subject  is  directly  related  to  his  intellectual  development. 

The  second  requisite  is  to  induce  in  the  child  a  hypnotic  condition 
or  at  the  very  least  a  passive  state — that  is  to  say,  a  physiological  con- 
dition characterized  by  the  suppression  or  diminution  of  the  different 
activities  of  his  mind — and  by  the  increase  of  automatism.  The  third 
requisite,  the  subject  being  in  a  passive  state,  is  to  associate  with  the 
verbal  suggestion  a  psycho-mechanical  action.  In  cases  where  it  is 
desired  to  correct  a  more  or  less  irresistible  impulse  or  an  automatic 
habit  the  psycho-mechanical  action  will  have  for  its  object  the  creation 
of  an  "  inhibitory  center."  This  will  result  either  in  making  it 
mechanically  impossible  for  the  subject  to  perform  the  act  indicated, 
or  in  causing  in  him  by  suggestion  a  psychic  paralysis.  These  maneu- 
vers should  be  repeated  till  the  image  of  the  check  is  fixed  in  the  brain 

S.  Doc.  400 5 


66  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

of  the  subject.  In  cases  where  it  is  desired  to  overcome  a  condition 
of  mental  activity  the  desired  result  will  be  arrived  at  by  use  of  the 
image  or  thought  of  action  and  an  automatic  impulsion  repeated  as 
often  as  necessary  to  awaken  mental  activity.  The  fourth  requisite  is 
to  formulate  all  suggestions  with  precision  and  clearness.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  the  visual,  auditory,  or  motory  images  presented  to  the  brain 
should  be  definitely  outlined. 

After  the  subject  has  automatically  and  unconsciously  performed 
the  suggested  acts  he  must  be  awakened  to  consciousness  by  degrees, 
and  the  same  acts  must  be  performed  with  his  conscious  participation. 

Finally,  the  subject  being  completely  conscious,  there  remains  noth- 
ing more  to  do  but  to  assure  him  that  he  can  inhibit  his  impulses  by  the 
simple  action  of  his  own  will  power.  * 

If  this  procedure  be  carefully  followed,  pedagogic  hypnotism,  which 
seems  at  first  glance  an  enslaving  of  the  consciousness,  will  show 
itself  "o  be  instead  a  development  of  individual  consciousness  and  of 
personalit}r. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  utility  of  hypnotic  or  suggestive  method,  we 
give  in  detail  the  case  of  a  schoolboy  affected  with  nervous  trembling. 

NERVOUS  TREMBLING   CURED   BY    HYPNOTIC    SUGGESTION. 

The  following  observation  treats  of  a  youth  of  15  years  of  age, 
pupil  in  a  public  school  in  Paris:  Fernand  F.  was  very  intelligent, 
usually  gave  satisfaction  by  his  work,  and  regularly  occupied  one  of  the 
first  places  in  the  various  classes.  Toward  the  month  of  December  he 
was  astonished  to  see  his  writing  uncertain  and  his  hand  shaky.  He 
paid  little  attention  to  it  at  first,  but  soon  it  became  aggravated  and 
troubled  him  very  much;  tor  example,  in  tracing  a  letter  he  was 
obliged  to  go  over  it  several  times,  to  proceed  by  starts  and  jerks,  and 
to  make  additions — sometimes  angular,  sometimes  round.  He  was 
thus  rendered  incapable  of  taking  notes  or  writing  from  dictation. 
He  also  frequently  had  geometrical  designs  to  make,  but  he  found  it 
impossible  to  do  this  sort  of  work,  as  he  could  not  make  use  of  the 
drawing  pen. 

The  school  programme  included  manual  work  in  carpentry,  etc. ,  in 
which  F.  had  achieved  a  certain  skill,  but  as  a  consequence  of  this 
manipulating  the  wood  and  iron  after  an  extraordinarily  intense  effort, 
which  fatigued  him  very  much,  and  then  the  results  obtained  were  but 
trembling  he  became  maladroit  and  uncertain  and  only  succeeded  in 
mediocre.  In  every  respect  F.'s  studies  were  seriously  compromised, 
the  more  so  as  the  trembling  increased  from  day  to  day. 

To  add  to  this,  F.  was  many  times  a  day  subject  to  auditive  hallu- 
cinations, generally  when  he  fixed  his  attention  firmly  on  one  object. 
These  hallucinations  were  in  keeping  with  the  subject  which  occupied 
him  at  the  moment,  and  arose  more  particularly  when  he  was  working 
at  his  geometry.  At  times  it  seemed  to  him  that  one  of  his  masters 
stood  behind  him  and  spoke  imperiously  to  him,  but  more  often  the 
hallucination  was  not  external.  What  he  heard  was  an  internal  voice, 
grave  and  severe,  which  engrossed  all  his  attention,  which  subjugated 
and  possessed  him.  During  this  time  his  features  were  immobile  and 
his  gaze  fixed;  he  seemed  stultified  or  plunged  into  a  sort  of  intellec- 
tual torpor.  After  several  minutes  he  would  realize  that  he  was  the 
toy  of  an  illusion  and  would  pull  himself  together,  rise,  pace  up  and 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  67 

down,  and  thus  conic  back  to  ordinary  life.  Once  free  from  the  hal- 
lucinations, he  did  not  recall  the  words  he  had  heard;  even  their  sense 
escaped  him.  He  was  distinctly  conscious  that  the  voice  was  rough 
and  imperious,  but  he  dared  not  affirm  that  the  words  were  distinct. 
He  was  aware  that  the  voice  was  more  often  internal  and  that  it  was 
of  purely  subjective  origin. 

i .  realized  that  his  case  was  abnormal,  even  pathological,  and  attrib- 
uted it  to  the  derangement  of  his  nervous  s}'stem.  In  the  beginning 
of  February  he  determined  to  procure  treatment,  and  to  this  end  went 
to  the  clinic  for  nervous  diseases. 

It  was  there  that  Dr.  Farez  was  enabled  to  study  him  and  to  treat 
him  in  concert  with  Berillon. 

ANTECEDENTS   OP   F. 

This  youth  was  very  sparing  in  details  concerning  his  hereditary 
antecedents.  The  majority  of  the  members  of  his  family  lived  in  the 
provinces,  and  he  scarcely  knew  them.  -He  had  never  heard  of  any  of 
his  relatives  or  antecedents  having  had  mental  trouble  or  neuropathic 
defects.  He  had  neither  brother  nor  sister;  his  parents,  aged  respec- 
tively 40  and  50  years,  were  very  well.  His  mother  was  very  nerv- 
ous and  exhibited  an  exaggerated  emotivity;  the  slightest  thing^ caused 
her  to  weep;  yet  she  was  neither  hasty  nor  choleric,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, possessed  a  rare  equality  of  temper,  and,  moreover,  was  credu- 
lous and  trusting  in  the  extreme. 

F.  resembled  his  mother  both  mentally  and  physically.  As  a  child 
he  had  been  very  healthy.  Although  but  15  years  old,  he  seemed  at 
least  17  or  18;  he  was  tail,  and,  judging  from  his  large  frame,  one 
would  have  thought  him  solid  ard  vigorous;  nevertheless  he  experi- 
enced a  sensation  of  feebleness  and  lassitude,  especially  in  his  limbs. 


ANATOMICAL    PECULIARITIES   OP   F. 


The  cerebral  cranium  was  abnormal  and  asymmetric,  more  developed 
than  ordinarily,  and  the  temples  very  prominent,  the  right  one  more 
than  the  left,  and  there  was  a  deep  depression  in  the  top  of  the  head 
above  the  temples  in  the  region  which  corresponds  to  the  coronal 
suture  and  to  the  anterior  portion  of  the  sagittal  suture,  which  indi- 
cated an  untimely  synostosis.  The  right  temple  showed  the  trace  of 
an  old  contusion,  and  on  top  of  the  head  immediately  back  of  the  left 
temple,  quite  near  the  median  line,  antero-posterior,  was  a  compara- 
tively new  scar.  In  fact,  some  months  previous  to  the  appearance  of 
the  above-named  symptoms  F.  had  been  struck  on  that  spot  by  a  stone 
and  had  been  unconscious  for  several  hours. 


DISPOSITION    OF    F. 


F.  was  of  a  tranquil  and  gentle  disposition,  rather  timid.  Ordina- 
rily he  appeared  grave  and  serious  as  would  a  mature  man;  he  was 
neither  expansive  nor  yet  too  reticent;  he  laughed  immoderately,  though 
seldom;  he  had  a  horror  of  fights,  and  if  spoken  to  roughly  he  refrained 
from  responding,  though  he  suffered  cruelly  and  even  cried  in  secret. 
He  was  neither  capricious  nor  fantastic.  He  exhibited  a  great  deal  of 
patience  and  perseverance,  and  his  studies  seemed  to  be  his  only  occu- 
pation. He  was  very  impressionable,  and  in  class  was  a  constant  prey 


68  A    PLAN   FOE    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

to  anxiety;  he  blushed,  and  profuse  perspiration  covered  his  entire 
body;  he  expected  every  minute  to  be  questioned,  and  feared  lest  the 
questions  find  him  unprepared.  He  thus  underwent  a  veritable  moral 
torture,  which  was  ended  and  followed  by  aglow  of  satisfaction  as  soon 
as  the  recitation  was  over.  This  experience  is  too  common  in  recita- 
tion, where  the  object  seems  to  be  to  find  out  who  knows  the  lesson 
(not  very  important  knowledge),  the  teacher  being  a  sort  of  mental 
detective.  He  experienced  the  same  anguish  when  the  compositions 
were  read  for  places,  fearing  he  would  not  be  among  the  first. 

Finally  his  memory  failed  and  he  could  not  work  for  any  length  of 
time  without  becoming  fatigued,  but,  being  very  courageous,  he  over- 
came the  fatigue  and  applied  himself  to  his  studies  not  only  during  the 
day,  but  far  into  the  night.  When  he  went  to  his  meals,  in  order  not 
to  lose  any  time  from  hL  studies  he  ate  very  fast  and  in  a  gluttonish 
manner,  and  immediately  after  the  repast  he  began  work.  His  diges- 
tion was  defective,  which  caused  abnormal  fermentation. 


SYMPTOMS. 


The  trembling  consisted  of  slight  oscillations,  regular  and  rhyth- 
mical, little  apparent  when  in  repose;  it  became  exaggerated  when  F. 
made  voluntary  movements,  and  especially  in  writing.  In  the  trans- 
verse sense  his  writing  showed  hesitations,  breaks,  and  retouchings, 
while  the  downward  strokes  in  the  curves  and  long  loops  were  full  of 
small  and  almost  regular  undulations.  F.  trembled  more  when  he 
tried  to  write  slowly  and  also  toward  evening,  but  more  especially 
after  fatigue  or  any  emotion.  This  tremulousness  was  not  confined  to 
the  arms,  but  was  also  in  the  legs,  and  at  intervals  even  appeared  in 
the  lips  and  eyelids.  It  was  more  noticeable  in  the  hand  because  of  the 
great  inconvenience  it  caused  him.  The  tremulousness  came  on  very 
gradually;  it  existed  before  the  blow  on  the  head,  but  was  extremely 
slight. 

TREATMENT   OF    F. 

In  his  first  visit  to  the  clinic  he  was  made  to  look  fixedly  at  an  arm- 
chair; then  it  was  energetically  asserted  that  he  was  about  to  submit 
to  a  species  of  fascinations  toward  the  chair;  that  he  would  feel  him- 
self drawn  toward  it;  that  he  would,  by  virtue  of  an  irresistible  force, 
go  and  sit  in  it  and  fall  into  a  profound  sleep,  all  of  which  was  real- 
ized in  a  few  moments,  proving  that  he  was  ver}T  suggestible.  In  fact, 
at  each  seance  he  fell  asleep  with  the  greatest  ease. 

While  he  was  in  the  hypnotic  sleep,  suggestions  were  made  him  in 
accordance  with  his  case.  He  was  persuaded  that  he  had  been  lacking 
in  self-control;  that  he  trembled  when  writing  because  he  had  not  suffi- 
cient energy  to  fix  his  attention  firmly  on  his  work  or  to  control  the 
trembling.  He  was  assured  that  by  means  of  hypnotism  he  would  be 
given  the  moral  energ}r  which  he  lacked;  that  in  future  he  would  be 
absolute  master  of  his  movements,  that  he  would  direct  them  in  per- 
fect consciousness,  and  would  be  able  to  prevent  his  hands  from  trem- 
bling; he  would  also  have  the  power  to  concentrate  his  mind  on  any 
single  object;  that  he  would  never  be  distracted  or  possessed  by  any 
hallucinations;  that  the  lassitude  would  disappear  and  the  muscles 
recover  their  normal  vigor.  At  the  same  time  a  simulation  of  a  gen- 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  69 

eral  massage  of  the  limbs  was  made.  Then,  to  reenforce  the  suggestion, 
he  was  told  that  by  special  passes  his  body  would  be  filled  with  mag- 
netic fluid,  which  would  secure  the  realization  of  all  that  had  been 
told  him. 

Intervention  during  hypnosis  was  not  confined  to  psychic  sugges- 
tions; this  was  accompanied  by  mechanical  treatment.  While  F.  con- 
tinued to  sleep,  his  hand  was  held  firmly  and  directed  in  such  manner 
as  to  make  him  accomplish,  without  trembling,  movements  correspond- 
ing to  the  form  of  certain  letters.  Then  he  was  told  to  trace  in  the  air 
words  indicated,  which  he  soon  did  with  great  assurance.  While  still 
in  the  hypnotic  sleep,  with  eyes  tight  shut,  he  was  told  to  write  with 
a  pen  on  paper.  Trie  letters  were  remarkably  distinct  and  correct. 

This  double  treatment  was  applied  once  a  week  during  three  months, 
and  at  the  end  of  each  seance  a  remarkable  amelioration  was  observed. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  F.  was  pronounced  cured,  and  he  once  more 
became  an  excellent  pupil.  His  memory  was  better  and  more  prompt, 
light  work  no  longer  fatigued  him,  and  he  was  able  to  apply  himself 
successfully  to  his  school  duties.  His  writing  was  firm  and  flowing, 
his  geometrical  designs  exact,  he  had  recovered  his  old  skill  at  manual 
work,  and  his  hallucinations  had  completely  disappeared. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  treatment  the  amelioration  obtained  by  each 
hypnotic  sleep  did  not  become  definite  all  at  once;  the  progress  was 
regularly  maintained  during  three,  four,  or  even  five  days,  but  dimin- 
ished on  the  day  before  that  set  for  the  next  treatment.  To  be  more 
clear  we  will  make  a  comparison:  Take,  for  instance,  a  storage  battery 
which  has  been  charged  with  sufficient  electricity  for  considerable 
work,  but  all  work  is  impossible  when  the  potential  energy  previous^ 
stored  has  been  exhausted.  Thus  every  Thursday  our  youth  went,  so 
to  speak,  for  a  fresh  supply  of  moral  energy,  which  was  spent  little  by 
little  during  the  week.  One  Thursday  F.  was  unable  to  attend  the 
clinic,  and  a  fortnight  elapsed  without  his  receiving  treatment,  or,  to 
adhere  to  our  metaphor,  without  being  recharged,  so  at  the  end  of 
this  time  he  was  in  the  same  condition  of  a  fortnight  before,  conse- 
quently the  amelioration  was  not  present,  as  nothing  had  hindered  its 
retrocession. 

Thus  the  cure  was  necessarity  slow  and  gradual,  but  was  finally 
obtained  through  patience,  perseverance,  and  tenacit}^.  It  was  not 
sufficient  to  gain  ground  each  time;  it  was  also  necessary  to  maintain 
it.  F.  was  afterward  obliged  to  take  an  examination,  and  there  was 
reason  to  apprehend  bad  effects  from  overstudy  and  emotive  anguish, 
so  care  was  taken  to  again  subject  him  to  hypnotic  and  psycho- 
mechanical  treatment  as  a  proph^latic  to  relapse.  Thanks  to  this 
intervention,  the  cure  was  made  permanent  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable 
circumstances  surrounding  the  subject. 

In  cases  of  this  kind,  as  in  many  others,  hypnotism  not  oi\\y  aids, 
cures,  and  renders  the  cure  permanent,  but  is  an  operation  which 
enables  one  to  forestall  a  repetition  and  to  fight  successfully  against 
conditions  favorable  to  a  return  of  the  disease. 

What  is  the  role  of  the  mechanical  treatment  which  accompanies 
suggestion  ? 

All  motory  habits  can  be  revived  by  what  is  called  an  association  of 
synergetic  movements.  These  movements  in  a  measure  form  part  of 
one  mechanism;  they  concur  to  the  same  end;  they  enter  into  play 


70  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

together  and  have  no  signification  aside  from  the  definite  purpose  for 
which  they  are  associated.  But  it  may  happen  that  these  movements 
lose  their  clearness,  their  precision,  their  fixity,  that  they  become  dis- 
associated and  cease  to  besynergetic;  or  it  might  be  that  these  supple- 
mentary movements  subjoined  superpose  those  which  are  indispensable. 
From  this,  the  motor  habit  may  be  perverted  or  deviated,  and  it  is 
expedient  to  set  it  right,  to  render  it  fixed  and  regular;  in  a  word,  to 
reeducate  it.  This  is  quickly  and  surely  accomplished  by  the  mechan- 
ical treatment  during  hypnotic  sleep,  which  subjects  the  various  move- 
ments to  a  beneficial  discipline  and  creates  anew  the  association.  As 
a  consequence  we  possess  a  treatment  of  the  diverse  motor  habits,  and 
besides,  one  may  have  recourse  to  this  intervention,  not  only  to  rectify, 
but  also  to  conserve  and  even  create  motor  habits. 

We  have  learned,  says  Farez,  that  psychotherapeutists  are  the  natu- 
ral and  frequently  the  indispensable  assistants  of  educators. 

The  case  in  question  is  a  fresh  example  of  the  fecundity  of  the  sug- 
gestive method.  Thus  hypnotism  is  an  instrument  of  mental  and  moral 
orthopedy;  it  is  capable  of  assuring  not  only  the  education  of  the 
intelligence  of  the  will  and  of  the  disposition,  but  also  of  precision,  of 
address,  and  dexterity  in  the  motor  domain. 

SOME  RECENT  RESULTS  FROM  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  give  some  of  the  results  of  recent  investiga- 
tions of  modern  man.  The  statement  of  these  results  will  indicate 
how  incomplete  and  unsatisfactory  our  knowledge  of  living  man  is. 
As  there  can  be  no  more  important  study  than  man  himself,  the  need 
of  bringing  this  study  up  to  the  degree  of  accuracy  equal  to  that  of  the 
sciences  is  evident.  But  this  can  be  done  only  by  patient  investigation 
with  instruments  of  precision  applied  to  many  persons  of  all  classes. 
To  these  psycho- physical  results  must  be  added  a  sociological  study  of 
all  the  outward  conditions  in  which  the  individuals  have  existed  from 
childhood  up.  This  combination  of  psycho-physics  and  sociology  will 
make  both  more  useful  to  the  community. 

The  conclusions  below,  although  based  upon  a  considerable  number 
of  cases  or  experiments,  can  be  held  only  as  tentative — that  is,  while 
true  for  the  individuals  experimented  upon,  they  have  only  a  general 
probability  when  applied  to  all  persons.  To  be  generally  true,  most 
of  the  conclusions  would  have  to  be  based  upon  a  very  large  number 
of  experiments. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  may  seem  so  obvious  as  not  to  need  an 
experimental  basis,  but  commonly  accepted  ideas  may  prove  to  be 
more  false  than  true  when  submitted  to  rigid  tests,  for  general  impres- 
sions are  sometimes  based  on  conspicuous  exceptions. 

It  is  not  intended  here  to  note  results  from  all  those  who  have  done 
research  work.  In  giving  the  conclusions  we  have  followed  the  work 
of  the  investigators  as  much  as  brevity  would  allow,  giving  the  general 
idea  in  as  few  words  as  possible.  As  will  be  seen,  much  research  has 
been  done  by  Americans. 

aFor  further  discussion  see  "Study  of  man"  (by  writer),  in  American  Journal  of 
Sociology,  May,  1901,  University  of  Chicago. 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  71 

RESULTS.  a 


Large  children  make  their  most  rapid  growth  at  an  earlier  age  than  small  ones 
(Bowditch). 

Maximum  growth  in  height  and  weight  occurs  in  boys  two  years  later  than  in  girls 
(Bowditch). 

First-born  children  excel  later  born  in  stature  and  weight, (Boas). 

Healthy  men  ought  to  weigh  an  additional  5  pounds  for  every  inch  in  height 
beyond  61  inches,  at  which  height  they  ought  to  weigh  120  pounds  (Lancaster). 

Chest  girth  increases  constantly  with  height  and  is  generally  half  the  length  of  the 
body  ( Landsberger) . 

Chest  girth  and  circumference  of  head  increase  in  parallel  lines  (Daffner). 

The  relatively  large  size  of  head  as  compared  with  body  in  children  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  from  birth  on  the  child  needs  its  brain  and  senses  as  much  as  when 
it  is  grown  (Weissenberg). 

Boys  grow  more  regularly  than  girls,  but  the  growth  of  girls  during  school  years 
is  greater  than  that  of  boys  (Schmidt). 

In  boys  in  school  the  muscles  of  the  upper  extremities  increase  with  age  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  lower  extremities  because  of  their  sitting  more  than  standing 
(Kotelmann). 

Breadth  of  face  increases  much  more  rapidly  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  head 
in  breadth  and  ,ength  (West). 

Tall  boys  (naval  cadets)  are  much  more  likely  to  have  completed  their  growth  at 
an  earlier  age  than  those  short  in  stature  (Beyer. ). 

Children  born  in  summer  are  taller  than  those  born  in  winter  (Combe). 

Boys  of  small  frames  often  have  large  heads  and  are  deficient  in  repose  of  character, 
and  when  the  chest  is  contracted  and  mental  action  slow,  this  mental  condition  is  due 
probably  to  lack  of  supply  of  purified  blood  (Liharzik). 

Delicate,  slender  people  are  much  more  subject  to  typhoid  fever  than  to  consump- 
tion (Hilderbrand). 

Women  students  who  have  had  infectious  diseases  are  superior  in  weight,  height, 
strength,  and  lung  capacity  to  those  having  had  hereditary  diseases  (MacDonald) . b 

Some  defective  children  are  over-normal— that  is,  they  are  taller  and  heavier  than 
other  children  (Basse). 

Growth  degenerates  as  we  go  lower  in  the  social  scale  (British  Association  for 
Advancement  of  Science). 

Dull  children  are  lighter  and  precocious  children  heavier  than  the  average  child 
(Porter). 

Urban  life  decreases  stature  from  five  years  of  age  on  (Peckham). 

Truant  'boys  are  inferior  in  weight,  height,  and  chest  girth  to  boys  in  general 
(Kline). 

Righthandedness  is  natural,  and  the  superiority  of  the  right  over  the  left  hand 
increases  with  growth  (Smedley,  F.  W.). 

SIGHT. 

Visual  perceptions  are  not  copies  of  a  physical  world,  but  mainly  the  result  of 
experience  and  utility  (Cattell). 

In  the  association  of  images  frequency  is  the  most  constant  condition  of  suggesti- 
bility (Calkins,  Mary  W.). 

If  the  eye  is  the  expressing  sense,  all  lengths  are  greatly  underestimated,  the  error 
decreasing  as  the  length  increases  (Jastrow). 

The  recognition  of  an  ordinary  picture  requires  one-fifth  of  a  second  or  less,  the 
time  decreasing  as  the  familiarity  increases  (Colegrove,  F.  W.). 

An  object  is  recognized  more  readily  when  inverted  than  in  either  of  the  two 
intermediate  portions  of  quarter-reversal,  and  more  readily  than  in  the  erect  mirror 
position  or  the  position  inverted  (Dearborn,  G.  V.). 

Visualization  decays  as  age  advances  and  abstract  thought  increases  (Armstrong 
and  Judd). 


aFor  a  full  understanding  of  some  of  the  results  one  of  course  must  consult  the 

iginal  articles. 

b Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  April  20,  1901. 


72  A    PLAN   FOE   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

Localization  seems  to  depend  much  more  on  fusion  than  upon  motor  tension  of 
the  eyes  (Hyslop). 

The  effects  of  fatigue  are  more  lasting  toward  the  side  portion  of  the  retina  than 
near  the  center  (Washburn,  Margaret  F. ). 

From  the  commencement  of  a  momentary  illumination  until  the  appearance  of  an 
after-image  0.344  second  elapses  (v.  Vintschgau  and  Lustig) . 

The  eye  when  in  the  primary  position  can  be  rotated  from  this  position  42°  out- 
ward, 45°  inward,  34°  upward,  and  57°  downward  (Schuurmann). 

The  sense  of  sight  is  much  more  accurate  in  estimating  length  than  the  sense  of 
touch  aided  by  the  muscular  sense  (Swift,  E.  J.). 

When  colored  objects  are  very  small  and  illumined  only  for  a  short  time,  the 
normal  eye  first  fails  to  perceive  red  (Aubert). 

When  retinal  fields  (colored  squares  or  figures)  are  presented  in  succession  the 
new  field  dominates  in  consciousness  (Pace,  E.  A.). 

There  is  good  evidence  for  believing  that  we  can  get  an  after-image  from  a  mental 
image  (Downey,  June  E.). 

Red  and  yellow  are  visible  at  greater  distances  than  green  and  blue  (Misses  Tanner 
and  Anderson). 

The  pleasantness  of  colors  generally  increases  with  their  saturation  (Cohn,  J. ). 

The  optic  nerves,  especially  the  left  optic,  in  Laura  Bridgman,  are  very  small, 
when  compared  with  those  in  normal  brains  (Donaldson). 

Children  can  not  see  colors  as  far  in  indirect  vision  as  adults.  Difference  in  sex 
makes  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  extent  of  color  range  (Luckey,  G.  W.  A.). 

In  comparison  of  a  fixed  object  with  one  which  is  moved  toward  or  from  the  eye 
the  moved  object  is  generally  underestimated  (McCrea  and  Pritchard). 


In  the  audibility  of  shrill  notes  there  is  a  remarkable  falling  off  of  the  power  as 
age  advances  (Galton). 

Beats  are  more  precisely  perceived  by  the  ear  than  by  other  sense-organs  (Horing, 
Mach). 

We  distinguish  more  easily  the  direction  from  which  noises  mixed  with  musical 
tones  come  than  that  of  tones  (Rayleigh). 

The  fixedness  of  auditory  localization  can  indeed  influence  the  optical  impression 
(Miinsterbergand  Pierce). 

The  conception  of  a  rhythm  demands  a  perfectly  regular  sequence  of  impressions 
within  the  limits  of  about  I  second  and  0.1  second  (Bolton,  T.  E.). 

The  auditory  element  in  reading  is  a  much  more  persistent  factor  than  articula- 
tion (Secor,  B.  S.). 

Tones  of  liminal  intensity,  attentively  followed  by  practiced  observers,  evince  the 
fluctuations  ordinarily  described  as  "  fluctuations  of  attentions  "  (Cook,  H.  O. ). 

There  is  no  good  evidence  for  supposing  that  cutaneous  sensations  play  any  part  in 
the  localization  of  sound  (Angell  and  Fite). 

MEMORY. 

In  young  children  a  memory  image  is  smaller  than  its  object,  while  in  adults  it 
may  exceed  the  object  in  size  (Wolfe,  H.  K.). 

The  memory  which  acts  quicker  acts  better  (Bigham,  J.). 

The  memory  image  tends  to  grow  larger  as  the  time  interval  increases  (Warren  and 
Shaw). 

The  memory  image  is  more  readily  producible  after  five  minutes  than  after  one 
minute  (Bent ley,  I.  M.). 

Matter  memorized  orally  appears  to  be  retained  slightly  better  than  that  memorized 
visually  (Whitehead,  L.  G.). 

It  is  absurd  to  assume  that  the  memorizing  of  any  subject  gives  valuable  memory 
training  (Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.). 

Sentences  are  remembered  inversely  in  proportion  to  their  length  and  number  of 
nonessentials contained  (Shaw,  J.  C.). 

Great  men,  though  often  absent-minded,  have  strong  memories  in  the  lines  of  their 
interests  (Yoder). 

The  accuracy  of  memory  is  enhanced  if,  during  the  interval,  the  attention  is 
deflected  from  the  thing  to  be  remembered  to  something  else  (von  Zwetan  Radosla- 
wow-Hadji-Denkow). 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  73 

SKIN. 

The  skin  over  the  joints  is  more  sensitive  than  elsewhere;  touches  on  the  back  are 
more  distinctly  felt  than  touches  on  the  front  of  the  body;  touches  on  the  left  side 
are  not  so  well  localized  as  on  the  right  side  (Krohn  and  Bolton). 

The  greater  the  mobility  of  the  part,  the  greater  the  sense  of  locality  on  the  skin 
(Vierordt). 

A  weight  held  by  one  limb  seems  to  become  lighter  as  soon  as  we  contract  other 
muscles  of  the  limb,  which,  however,  are  not  required  -to  act  in  supporting  the 
weight  (Charpentier). 

The  sensibility  to  cold  is  generally  greater  than  to  heat,  that  of  the  left  hand  greater 
than  the  right  (Goldscheider). 

Limbs  which  are  asleep  feel  heat  and  not  cold  (Herzen) . 

The  greater  the  sensibility  of  the  skin  the  more  rapidly  can  stimuli  succeed  each 
other  and  still  be  perceived  as  single  impressions  (Bloch). 

Two  points  touching  the  skin  feel  wider  apart  than  when  moving  along  the  skin 
(Fechner). 

The  pain  threshold  increases  with  the  area  of  stimulation,  but,  like  the  tactile 
threshold,  much  more  slowly  than  in  direct  proportion.  The  most  sensitive  parts 
of  the  body  are  those  where  the  skin  is  not  separated  from  the  bone  by  muscular  and 
other  tissues  (Griffing,  H.). 

In  cutaneous  perception  of  form,  the  tip  of  the  tongue  ranks  first,  then  come  the 
finger  tips  and  lips  (Major,  D.  R.). 

TASTE    AND   SMELL. 

Taste  sensations,  so  far  as  their  discriminative  or  intellectual  value  is  concerned, 
are  the  composite  result  of  the  mingling  of  sensations  of  smell,  touch,  temperature, 
sight,  and  taste  (Patrick,  G.  T.  W.). 

Sweet  is  tasted  best  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  sour  on  the  edge,  and  bitter  at  the 
base,  acid  equally  on  the  tip  and  edges,  but  less  at  the  base  (Kiesow,  F.). 

Saline  substances  are  tasted  most  rapidly  (after  0.17  second);  then  come  s«veet, 
acid,  and  bitter  (v.  Vintschgau). 

Odorous  bodies  diminish  the  number  of  respirations  (Gourewitsch). 

Weber's  law  applies  to  smell  (Gamble,  Eleanor). 

MOVEMENT. 

The  thought  of  a  movement  already  begins  it,  facilitates  it,  quickens  it;  yet  atten- 
tion to  a  practiced  movement  in  many  instances  embarrasses  it,  hinders  it,  lengthens 
it  (Baldwin). 

Accuracy  in  judging  space  by  movements  of  the  arm  increases  with  age  (Gilbert). 

Automatic  movements  of  the  speech  organs  do  take  place  and  are  far  from  uncom- 
mon (Curtis,  H.  S.). 

There  is  a  gradual  increase  of  motor  ability  with  age;  the  increase  in  mental  abil- 
ity is  not  so  well  marked.  Boys  slightly  surpass  girls  in  motor  ability,  while  the 
reverse  obtains  in  mental  ability  (Bagley,  W.  C. ). 

In  involuntary  motor  reaction  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  expansion  under  agree- 
able stimuli,  and  to  contraction  under  disagreeable  stimuli  (Miinsterberg). 

Contraction  of  the  extensor  muscles  is  more  pleasant  in  itself  than  contraction  of 
the  flexors  (Dearborn,  G.  V.  N.). 

The  individual  who  is  fairly  accurate  and  very  quick  is  generally  more  accurate 
when  he  takes  more  time  (Fitz,  G.  W.). 

The  average  knee  jerk  varies  in  amount  at  different  times  of  day,  being  as  a  rule 
greatest  in  the  morning  and  very  much  less  at  night,  and  in  general  large  after  each 
meal  (Lombard). 

ATTENTION. 

The  constant  of  attention  for  any  activity  increases  with  (1)  the  effort  of  the  accom- 
modation of  the  special  sense  organs;  (2)  the  effort  in  coordination  of  the  muscles; 
(3)  the  effort  of  the  memory,  and  (4)  the  number  of  simultaneous  activities  (Welch, 
Janette  C.). 

The  time  question  in  attention  is  not  a  case  of  a  " sensory"  versus  a  " motor" 
reaction,  but  of  a  sensori-motor  less  habitual  versus  a  sensori-motor  more  habitual 
(Angell  and  Moore).  , 

In  perceptual  attention  there  is  a  general  increase  in  the  rapidity  of  respiration. 
This  is  also  characteristic  of  heightened  mental  activity  (MacDougal,"  R. ). 


74  A   PLAN   FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

VOLITION. 

The  power  of  volition  of  the  ego  seems  to  induce  changes  in  the  cerebral  centers 
and  connected  organs  of  sense  apparently  without  any  use  of  the  muscular  system  to 
control  the  nature  of  those  changes  (Ladd). 

Mental  images  themselves  constitute  the  motives,  the  springs  of  action,  for  all  we 
do  (Lay,  W.).. 

Positive  feeling  seems  to  indicate  that  the  function  exercised  is  supported  by 
a  good  amount  of  nervous  energy,  and  negative  feeling  the  opposite  condition 
.Hylan,  J.  P.). 

If  the  volitional  temperament  is  unfavorable,  practice  will  have  no  effect  in  deter- 
mining the  two  types  of  reaction  time  (Titchener,  Hill,  and  Watanabe). 

STIMULATION    AND   SENSATION. 

Intensity  of  sensation  is  exactly  proportional  to  the  duration  of  simulation,  the 
time  being  less  than  necessary  to  produce  a  maximum  effect  (ixmgh,  J.  E.). 

The  threshold  of  sensation  for  the  sense  of  pressure  in  an  average  person  is  2  milli- 
grams on  the  forehead,  temple,  and  back  of  forearm,  5  milligrams  on  nose  and  chin, 
and  15  milligrams  on  under  surface  of  fingers  (Scripture). 

Equal  increments  of  sensation  are  produced  by  increments  of  stimulus  in  geomet- 
rical progression  (Morgan,  C.  L. ). 

The  minimal  time  of  stimulation  which  will  yield  an  after  sensation  is  about  5 
seconds  with  a  pressure  of  150  grams  (Spindler,  F.  H.). 

In  judgments  of  comparison  with  a  mental  standard,  there  is  an  absence  of  any 
correspondence  with  Weber's  law  (Wood worth  and  Thorndike). 

MORAL   SENSE. 

fpung  children  think  of  the  results  of  action;  older  children  consider  more  the 
motive  that  leads  to  action  (Schallenberger,  Margaret). 

The  humane  instinct  in  children  is  much  stronger  than  the  destructive  instinct 
(Barnes). 

As  age  increases,  children  have  more  sense  of  their  own  value,  submit  to  punish- 
ment less,  but  feel  more  responsibility  (Frear,  Caroline). 

Moral  action  in  child  life  is  more  a  matter  of  imitation  than  intellect  (Street,  J.  K. ). 

Girls  show  less  interest  in  material  things  than  boys,  and  admire  the  aesthetic 
more  (Chandler,  Katherine). 

READING    AND    WRITING. 

Many  acts  called  intelligent,  such  as  reading  and  writing,  can  go  on  quite  auto- 
matically in  ordinary  people  (Solomons,  Leon  ML,  and  Stein,  Gertrude). 

In  reading,  the  size  of  type  is  the  all-important  condition  of  visual  fatigue.  No 
type  less  than  1.5  mm.  in  height  (eleven-point)  should  be  used,  the  fatigue  increas- 
ing rapidly  even  before  the  size  becomes  as  small  as  this  (Griffing  and  Franz). 

In  learning  to  interpret  the  telegraphic  language  it  is  intense  effort  which  edu- 
cates; each  new  step  in  advance  seems  to  cost  more  than  the  former  (Bryan  and 
Harter). 

In  writing,  men  respond  to  an  increased  difficulty  by  intensifying  the  volitional 
impulse;  women,  by  a  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  characters  written  (Diehl,  A.). 

Rapid  readers  do  their  work  better,  as  well  as  in  less  time,  and  retain  more  of  the 
substance  of  what  is  read  (Quantz,  J.  O.). 

As  to  legibility  of  small  letters,  w,  m,  q,  p,  v,  y,  j,  and  f  are  good;  h,  r,  d,  g,  k,  b, 
x,  1,  n,  and  u  are  fair,  and  a,  t,  i,  z,  o,  c,  s,  and  e  are  poor  (Sanford). 

Eye  movements  in  reading  are  not  materially  different  from  those  made  in  response 
to  peripheral  stimuli  as  the  eye  looks  back  and  forth  between  two  fixation  points 
(Dodge  and  Cline). 

In  adding,  the  effect  of  alcohol  seems  to  be  a  slight  quickening;  in  reading  and 
writing,  alcohol  produces  a  period  of  quickening  followed  by  a  period  of  retardation 
(Partridge,  G.  E.). 

ILLUSIONS    AND    DREAMS. 

In  perception  of  visual  form  each  observer  has  certain  habits  of  illusion,  or  certain 
typical  modes  of  associative  completion,  which  persist  with  modification  throughout 
his  records  (Hempstead,  L.). 

Illusions  are  mainly  due  to  autosuggestion  (Tawney,  G.  A.). 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  75 

Men  are  less  prone  than  women  to  illusions  of  weight  (Wolfe,  H.  K.). 

Dreams  are  the  product  of  light  sleep,  representing  the  reinstatement  of  conscious- 
ness after  the  early  and  profound  sleep  (Patrick  and  Gilbert). 

The  delusions  of  the  waking  hours  seldom  or  never  come  to  harass  the  sleep  of  the 
monomaniac  (Pilcz,  A.). 

Illusions  are  easily  built  up  when  suggested  along  the  lines  of  firmly  fixed  asso- 
ciations, and  consequently  the  brightest  children  are  more  suggestible  under  these 
conditions  than  the  dullest  ones  (Dresslar,  F.  B. ). 

BLUSHING    AND    FEAR. 

Blushing  comes  from  shyness  and  fear,  is  unnatural  and  morbid,  increases  at 
puberty,  and  it,  greater  in  women  than  men  ( Partridge,  G.  E. ) . 

In  boys,  fear  increases  from  ages  7  to  15,  and  then  declines;  in  girls,  from  4  to  18. 
Girls  fear  more  than  boyi  (Hall). 

POWER   OF   ESTIMATION. 

Younger  children  underestimate  weight  and  size  (proportion)  and  overestimate 
time  (Franz  and  Houston). 

Weights  are  discriminated  a  little  better  through  the  hand  than  through  the  foot 
(Kinnaman,  A.  J.) 

In  the  estimation  of  measurement  men  are  more  accurate  than  women  (Bolton, 
T.  E.). 

Time  perception  can  alone  be  accounted  for  as  a  process.  Nearly  all  persons  under 
nearly  all  conditions  find  a  particular  length  of  time  interval  more  easily  and  accu- 
rately to  be  judged  than  any  other  (Nichols,  H.). 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Students  entering  college  have  heads  on  the  average  19.3  cm.  long;  15  per  cent 
have  defective  hearing;  their  average  reaction  time  is  0.174  sec.;  they  can  remember 
seven  numerals  heard  once  (Cattell  and  Farrand). 

In  reaction  time,  the  ear-lip  coordination  is  the  fastest  (Angell  and  Moore). 

Lower  races  seem  to  have  shorter  reaction  times  than  higher  races;  they  are  more 
automatic  (Bache,  R.  M.). 

The  mental  processes  of  the  highest  animals  are  not  radically  different  from  those 
of  men,  but  man  has  capabilities  of  feeling  and  intellection  which  animals  can  not 
attain  (Mills,  W.). 

Mental  exercise  causes  less  inflow  of  arterial  blood  into  the  arm,  and  so  does  sleep 
(Mosso). 

Vascular  tonicity  increases  dicrotism  (double-beating  pulse)  and  high  pressure 
diminishes  it  (Binet). 

In  general,  sensitiveness  to  pain  decreases  in  order  of  birth  (Carman,  Ada). 

Those  who  have  endured  the  most  hardihood  in  life  are  usually  the  least  sensitive 
to  pain  (MacDonald). 

City  children  are  more  vivacious,  but  have  less  power  of  endurance  than  country 
children  (Liharzik). 

Among  United  States  naval  cadets  there  is  a  great  preponderance  of  blondes 
(Beyer). 

The  insane  show  an  excess  of  5  per  cent  of  light  eyes,  with  dark  hair,  and  criminals 
of  10  per  cent  of  dark  eyes,  with  dark  hair,  over  the  general  population  (Roberts). 

In  Germany  40  per  cent  of  the  children  of  the  well-to-do  classes  are  blondes  and 
less  than  10  per  cent  brunettes  (Virchow). 

The  endurance  (ergographic  work)  of  boys  is  greater  than  that  of  girls  at  all  ages 
(Christopher,  W.  S.)- 

The  desire  to  make  the  objective  conditions  correspond  with  the  subjective  ones 
requires  unity  in  our  lorms,  and  is  the  one  essential  condition  for  the  emergence  of 
the  aesthetic  consciousness  (Pierce,  E. ). 

In  religion  conversion  is  not  a  unique  experience,  but  has  its  correspondence  in  the 
common  phenomena  of  religious  growth  (Starbuck,  E.  D.). 

Continuous  intellectual  work  during  several  hours  produces  a  decrease  in  the  heart 
beats  (Vaschide). 

Weather  conditions  which  are  physically  energizing  and  exhilarating  are  accom- 
panied by  an  unusual  number  of  excesses  in  deportment  and  the  minimum  of  deaths 
and  mental  inexactness,  while  the  opposite  meteorological  conditions  show  the  re- 
verse effects  (Dexter,  E.  G.)« 


76  A    PLAN    FOE    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

In  literature  red  indicates  man;  blue  and  green,  nature;  and  white,  yellow,  and 
black,  imagination  (Ellis,  Havelock). 

High  percentile  rank  in  height,  weight,  and  chest  circumference  in  growing  chil- 
dren is  nearly  always  found  associated  with  a  superior  grade  of  mental  work,  as  that 
is  determined  in  our  schools  (Beyer). 

WASHINGTON   CHILDREN. 

There  is  a  very  general  representation  from  all  States  among  the  residents  of  Wash- 
ington. Conclusions  concerning  the  children,  therefore,  may  be  more  applicable  to 
our  country  as  a  whole.  We  give  some  results  from  our  study  of  20,000  children  in 
the  public  schools. 

As  circumference  of  head  increases  mental  ability  increases. 

Colored  girls  have  larger  circumference  of  head  at  all  ages  than  white  girls. 

Boys  have  greater  circumference  of  head  than  girls,  yet  girls  are  superior  to  boys 
in  their  studies,  but  girls  show  higher  percentages  of  average  ability,  and  so  less  vari- 
ability, indicating  less  power  of  adaptation.  This  is  interpreted  by  some  to  be  a 
defect  from  an  evolutionary  point  of  view. 

In  white  children  brightness  decreases  with  age  in  most  studies.  In  colored 
children  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

Dull  children  are  the  most  unruly,  and  unruly  children  are  the  dullest. 

Mixture  of  nationalities  does  not  seem  to  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  mental 
ability  in  the  offspring. 

The  pubertal  period  of  superiority  of  girls  over  boys  in  height,  sitting  height,  and 
weight  is  nearly  a  year  longer  in  the  laboring  classes  than  in  the  nonlaboring  (pro- 
fessional and  mercantile)  classes. 

Children  with  abnormalities  are  inferior  in  height,  sitting  height,  and  weight  and 
circumference  of  head  to  children  in  general. 

Abnormalities  are  most  frequent  at  dentition  and  puberty. 


CRIMINOLOGY. a 

Criminology  is  a  branch  of  sociolog}^,  and  treats  of  those  actions, 
thoughts,  and  feelings  which  are  especially  dangerous  either  to  the 
individual  or  society.  Drill  says  that  crime  is  a  sensible  measure  of 
the  degree  of  health,  strength,  and  prosperity  of  a  given  society  in  a 
given  moment  of  its  existence.  The  social  organism  suffers  from  dis- 
ease just  as  the  individual.  Thus  there  is  a  social  pathology,  which 
considers  the  morbid  states  of  society  and  the  anomalies  opposed  to 
nature,  and  shows  their  coexistence  and  the  derivation  of  one  from  the 
other. 

Criminology  proper  may  be  divided  into  general,  special,  and  practi- 
cal. General  criminology  consists  in  a  summary  and  synthesis  of  all 
the  facts  known.  Special  criminology  concerns  the  investigation  of 
individual  cases,  physically,  psychically,  and  historically  considered. 
Here,  perhaps,  is  the  most  promising  field  for  the  advancement  of 
criminology  as  a  science.  The  practical  side,  which  includes  all 
methods  and  institutions  for  the  prevention  or  repression  of  crime,  is 
the  most  familiar  to  the  public. 

SCIENTIFIC   METHOD. 

The  study  of  criminology,  like  the  study  of  medicine,  should  be  car- 
ried on  by  scientific  methods — that  is  to  say,  all  the  conditions,  occa- 
sions, and  causes  of  crime  must  be  investigated  first,  if  the  treatment 
is  to  be  a  rational  one.  "  Sound  pathology,  sound  medicine,"  is  as  true 
as  it  is  familiar. 

aSee  "Abnormal  Man"  (by  writer)  for  further  details;  published  by  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  77 

A  practical  advantage  in  the  study  of  criminals  is,  that  they  being 
in  prison,  questions  can  be  asked  and  investigations  permitted  that 
would  be  very  difficult  outside  of  prison.  The  exact  conditions,  such  as 
diet,  regularity  in  manner  of  living,  etc.,  being  known,  make  it  more 
favorable  for  scientific  inquiry.  And  since  the  criminal  is  living  on  the 
bounty  of  the  State,  there  is  no  valid  reason  why  he  can  not  be  utilized 
(provided  always  that  it  is  in  a  humane  way);  for  the  very  object  of 
such  an  investigation  is  ultimately  to  benefit  the  State  by  lessening 
crime.  The  method  is,  by  a  thorough  diagnosis,  to  trace  out  the  under- 
ly  ing  and  constant  causes  of  crime,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  apply  direct 
means  toward  its  prevention  and  repression.  The  study  of  the  crim- 
inal can  also  be  the  study  of  a  normal  man;  for  most  .criminals  are  so 
by  occasion  or  accident,  and  differ  in  no  essential  respect  from  other 
men.  Thus  an  individual,  becoming  excited  in  discussion,  or  under 
the  influence  of  liquor,  or  on  account  of  an  insult,  may,  on  the  spur  of 
the  moment,  strike  the  offender  with  the  nearest  object  in  his  reach. 
If  it  is  a  hammer,  he  becomes  a  criminal;  if  it  is  a  book,  he  is  not  a 
criminal. 

But  even  where  the  individual  is  criminal  by  nature,  it  is  generally 
his  moral  and  not  his  intellectual  side  that  is  abnormal;  so  that  methods 
found  to  be  successful  in  mental  education  will  be  applicable  outside 
of  prison;  and  vice  versa,  any  experiment  that  fails  in  prison  may  save 
the  community  from  making  a  similar  mistake.  Thus  the  prison  or 
reformatory  may  also  serve  as  a  laboratory  for  experiments  on  humanity 
for  the  good  of  humanity  itself.  The  pressing  need  of  the  present  is  a 
sytem  of  education  that  will  prepare  the  average  young  person  for 
actual  life.  Such  a  system  will  not  be  found  by  arguments  or  theories, 
but  must  come  from  experiments.  Any  prison  method  that  might  be 
found  successful  for  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  industrial  training  of 
the  weak  in  life  would  a  fortiori  be  applicable  to  societ}r  at  large. 

PRISON    DISCIPLINE. 

It  is  almost  a  truism  of  prison  discipline  that  the  conditions  inside 
should  approach  those  outside  as  near  as  possible,  so  that  on  the  pris- 
oner's release  the  change  may  not  be  so  sudden  as  to  precipitate  his 
early  fall.  He  probably  became  an  evil  doer  gradually,  and  if  he  becomes 
a  good  citizen  the  change  must  be  as  gradual.  The  importance  of  the 
application  of  the  individual  method  in  prison  discipline  is  evident  here. 
It  seems  rational  that  one  in  charge  of  a  penal  or  reformatory  institu- 
tion should  know  at  least  the  important  details  as  to  the  character  and 
life  of  every  individual  under  his  charge.  The  practical  value  (not  to 
mention  the  scientific  value)  is  obvious.  This  applies  as  well  to  all  the 
underofficers,  who  are  much  more  in  contact  with  the  men.  We  say 
it  seems  rational,  if  the  men  are  to  have  intelligent  and  proper  treat- 
ment. But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  almost  all  our  institutions,  if  not  all, 
ignorance  of  such  details  is  the  rule  among  those  in  charge,  and  this 
ignorance  seems  to  be  the  most  intense  among  those  who  are  in  closest 
relation  with  the  inmates,  the  very  ones  whom  such  knowledge  might 
assist  the  most. 

The  real  trouble,  as  in  other  institutions,  is  the  want  of  thoroughly 
trained  men.  It  is  as  true  of  a  prison  as  of  a  university  that  buildings 
do  not  make  it,  but  men.  The  public,  however,  are  unwilling  to  pay 
for  trained  men.  Even  the  wardenship  of  a  prison  is  not  regarded  as 


78  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

a  very  high  political  office,  nor  are  intellectual  qualifications  a  conspic- 
uous requisition.  The  regular  duties  of  a  warden  (not  to  mention  his 
political  ones)  leave  him  little  time  and  less  energy  to  make  an  indi 
yidual  study  of  his  prisoners,  and  too  many  of  the  underofficers  are 
incapable  from  lack  of  education  or  intelligence,  or  both.  Many  of 
the  criminals  are  more  intelligent  than  those  over  them.  The  psycho- 
logical effect  is  apparent.  Given  ten  of  the  most  disorderly  men  in  a 
prison,  and  one  of  the  lowest  paid  officers  (as  is  too  often  the  case)  to 
take  charge  of  them,  the  result  is  likewise  evident. 

Having  considered  the  point  of  view  from  within  the  prison,  we 
may  briefly  take  up  the  point  of  view  of  the  citizen  outside,  who  is  of 
much  more  value  than  the  criminal.  The  value  of  the  criminal  is  very 
small  in  comparison,  but  it  is  infinitesimally  so  when  the  whole  com- 
munity are  considered.  In  a  sense  the  criminal  is  important,  simply 
because  the  community  make  him  so.  Just  as  a  flaw  in  one  little  part 
of  a  mechanism  can  throw  the  whole  into  disorder,  so  the  criminal  is 
important,  since  by  his  crime  he  can  throw  the  whole  community  into 
excitement.  Why,  then,  should  he  have  so  comfortable  quarters  and 
many  privileges  at  the  expense  of  the  community  ?  Simply  because  it 
is  more  economical  for  the  community  (not  to  mention  higher  moral 
and  religious  reasons)  to  treat  him  well  than  otherwise.  History 
records  the  results  of. the  vengeance  theory,  and  shows  at  least  its 
uselessness. 

APPLICATION   OF   SCIENTIFIC   METHOD. 

By  the  application  of  the  scientific  method  is  meant  that  all  facts, 
especially  psychological  (sociological,  historical,  etc.),  physiological, 
and  pathological,  must  form  the  basis  of  investigation.  Psychological 
facts  that  can  be  scientifically  determined,  as  affecting  humanity,  bene- 
ficially or  not,  are  comparatively  few  in  number.  Physiologically, 
more  facts  can  be  determined  as  to  their  effect  on  humanity,  but  it  is 
preeminently  in  the  field  of  pathology  that  definite  scientific  results 
can  be  acquired.  As  to  the  difficulty  of  investigating  psycho-ethical 
effects,  it  may  be  said  physiological  psychology  and  psycho-physics 
have  not  as  yet  furnished  a  sufficient  number  of  scientific  facts. 

By  the  scientific  application  of  chemistry,  clinical  and  experimental 
medicine,  with  vivisection,  to  physiology,  many  truths  of  ethical 
importance  to  humanity  are  made  known,  but  there  is  much  here  to  be 
desired;  for  example,  what  is  said  about  questions  of  diet  and  ways  of 
living  in  general  is  scientifically  far  from  satisfactory.  The  develop- 
ment of  pathology  in  medicine  has  been  without  precedent.  Its  direct 
ethical  value  to  humanity  is  already  very  great;  but  the  outlook  into 
the  future  is  still  greater.  It  is  only  necessary  to  mention  the  discov- 
ery of  the  cholera  and  tuberculosis  germs  (a  conditio  sine  qua  non  of 
their  prevention).  Immunity  in  the  case  of  the  latter  woulcf  be  one  of 
the  greatest  benefactions  yet  known  to  the  race.  Medicine  can  be  said 
to  be  the  study  of  the  future,  especially  in  the  scientific  and  prophy- 
lactic sense.  It  is  to  experimental  medicine  that  scientific  ethics  will 
look  for  many  of  its  basal  facts. 

In  emphasizing  the  scientific  method  as  the  most  important  it  is  not 
intended  to  exclude  others.  The  a  priori  method  has  been  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  philosophy,  ethics,  and  theology,  and  to  science  itself  in 
the  forming  of  hypotheses  and  theories,  which  are  often  necessary 
anticipations  of  truth,  to  be  verified  afterwards.  The  a  priori  method 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  79 

is  related  to  the  a  posteriori  method  as  the  sails  to  the  ballast  of  the 
boat:  the  more  philosophy  the  better,  provided  there  are  a  sufficient 
number  of  facts;  otherwise  there  is  danger  of  upsetting  the  craft. 

The  present  office  of  ethics  is,  as  far  as  the  facts  will  allow,  to  sug- 
gest methods  of  conduct  to  follow  and  ideals  to  hold  that  will  bring 
humanity  into  a  more  moral,  physiological,  and  normal  state,  enabling 
each  individual  to  live  more  in  harmony  with  nature's  laws.  Such  an 
applied  ethics  must  study  especially  the  phenomena  manifested  in  the 
different  forms  of  pathological  humanity  and  draw  its  conclusions 
from  the  facts  thus  gathered. 

But  there  are  many  scientists  who  look  witl»  suspicion  upon  the 
introduction  of  philosophical  thought  and  methods  into  their  field.  We 
may  call  them  pure  scientists,  that  is  to  say,  those  who  believe  that 
the  term  scientific  truth  should  be  applied  only  to  that  form  of  truth 
which  can  be  directly  verified  by  facts  accessible  to  all.  Yet  from  this 
point  of  view  the  arrangement,  classification,  formation  of  hypotheses 
and  theories,  or  philosophical  conclusions  are  not  necessarily  ille- 
gitimate, provided  those  processes  are  clearly  distinguished*  from 
each  other  and  rigidly  separated  from  the  facts.  Perhaps  the  study 
which,  more  than  all  others,  will  contribute  toward  a  scientific  ethics 
is  criminology,  the  subject-matter  of  which  touches  the  popular  mind 
very  closely,  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  influence  of  the  press; 
and  though  this  has  its  dangers,  yet  it  is  the  duty  of  this,  as  of  every 
science,  to  make  its  principles  and  conclusions  as  clear  as  possible  to 
the  public,  since  in  the  end  such  questions  vitally  concern  them. 

Crime  can  be  said,  in  a  certain  sense,  to  be  nature's  experiment  on 
humanity.  If  a  nerve  of  a  normal  organism  is  cut,  the  organs  in  which 
irregularities  are  produced  are  those  which  the  nerve  controls.  In  this 
way  the  office  of  a  nerve  in  the  normal  state  may  be  discovered.  The 
criminal  is,  so  to  speak,  the  severed  nerve  of  society,  and  the  study  of 
him  is  a  practical  way,  though  indirect,  of  studying  normal  men.  And 
since  the  criminal  is  seven-eighths  like  other  men,  such  a  study  is,  in 
addition,  a  direct  inquiry  into  normal  humanity. 

The  relation  also  of  criminology  to  society  and  to  sociological  ques- 
tions is  already  intimate,  and  ma}^  in  the  future  become  closer.  Just 
what  crime  is  at  present  depends  more  upon  time,  location,  race, 
country,  nationality,  and  even  the  state  in  which  one  resides.  But 
notwithstanding  the  extreme  relativity  of  the  idea  of  crime,  there  are 
some  things  in  our  present  social  life  that  are  questionable.  A  young 
girl  of  independence,  but  near  poverty,  tries  to  earn  her  own  living  at 
f  3  a  week,  and  if,  having  natural  desires  for  a  few  comforts  and  some 
taste  for  her  personal  appearance,  she  finally,  through  pressure,  over- 
steps the  bound,  society,  which  permits  this  condition  of  things,  imme- 
diately ostracizes  her.  It  borders  on  criminality  that  a  widow  works 
fifteen  hours  a  day  in  a  room  in  which  she  lives,  making  trousers  at  10 
cents  a  pair,  out  of  which  she  and  her  family  must  live,  until  they 
gradually  rundown  toward  death  from  want  of  sufficient  nutrition,  fresh 
air,  and  any  comfort.  It  is  criminally  questionable  to  leave  stoves  in 
cars,  so  that  if  the  passenger  is  not  seriously  injured,  but  only  wedged 
in,  he  will  have  the  additional  chances  of  burning  to  death.  It  has  been 
a  general  truth,  and  in  some  cases  is  still,  that  so  many  persons  must 
perish  by  tire  before  private  individuals  will  furnish  fire  escapes  to 
protect  their  own  patrons.  It  seems  criminal  to  grant  licenses  to 
hotels,  where  a  sudden  fire  in  the  night  would  almost  certainly  cause 
the  death  of  human  beings.  It  is  a  fact  that  over  5,000  people  are 


80  A    PLAN    FOE    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

killed  3rearly  in  the  United  States  at  railroad  grade  crossings,  most 
of  whose  lives  could  have  been  spared  had  either  the  road  or  the  rail- 
road passed  either  one  over  the  other.  But  it  is  said  that  such  im- 
provements would  involve  an  enormous  expense;  that  is,  practically, 
to  admit  that  the  extra  money  required  is  of  more  consequence  than 
the  5,000  human  lives.  And  yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  if  a  brutal 
murderer  is  to  lose  his  life,  and  there  is  the  least  doubt  as  to  his  pre- 
meditation, a  large  part  of  the  community  is  often  aroused  into  moral 
excitement,  if  not  indignation,  while  the  innocently  murdered  railroad 
passenger  excites  little  more  than  a  murmur. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  subject  upon  which  the  public  conscience  is 
more  tender  than  the  treatment  of  the  criminal. 

Psychologically,  the  explanation  is  simple,  for  the  public  have  been 
educated  gradually  to  feel  the  misfortune  and  sufferings  of  the  crim- 
inal; it  is  also  easier  to  realize,  since  the  thought  is  confined  generally 
to  one  personality  at  a  time.  But  if  the  public  could  all  be  eye-wit- 
nesses to  a  few  of  our  most  brutal  railroad  accidents,  the  consciousness 
gained  might  be  developed  into  conscientiousness  in  the  division  of 
their  sympathies.  But  this  feeling,  however  paradoxical,  is  a  sincere, 
though  sometimes  morbid,  expression  of  unselfish  humanitarianism; 
for  the  underlying  impulses  are  of  the  most  ethical  order,  and  over- 
cultivation  is  a  safer  error  than  undercultivation.  The  moral  climax 
of  this  feeling  was  reached  when  the  Founder  of  Christianity  was 
placed  between  two  thieves 

INSTRUCTION   IN   CRIMINOLOGY. a 

In  a  report  prepared  by  Lombroso  for  the  International  Penological 
Congress  is  the  question  whether  it  will  be  advisable  to  organize  in- 
struction in  penal  science.  That  is,  by  what  means  could  there  be 
added  the  positive  study  of  the  facts  and  questions  of  application, 
without  interfering  with  the  performance  of  duties  and  without  preju- 
dice to  the  administration. 

In  our  own  country  and  Europe  science  and  the  university  have 
manifested  little  interest  in  criminological  subjects.  They  have  taken 
the  position  of  the  public  that  crime  is  a  necessary  and  incurable  evil, 
and  so  there  is  little  use  in  troubling  about  it.  Yet  penitentiary  and 
carcerial  sciences  are  the  most  complicated  and  most  susceptible  to 
instruction  of  all  other  sciences.  To  construct  the  most  healthy,  most 
economical,  and  best  adapted  prison  cell  or  workshop  is  a  desideratum. 
The  same  is  true  as  to  the  construction  of  women's  prisons,  houses  of 
arrest  for  accused  persons,  innocent  or  guilty,  andplaces  for  witnesses. 

At  present  our  jurists  study  law  books  much  more  than  they  do 
criminals;  and  yet  perhaps  one-half  of  the  time  of  our  courts  is  con- 
fined to  criminals.  Criminals  are  considered  by  many  jurists,  prison 
employees,  and  the  public  as  normal  men,  who  are  unlucky  and  unfor- 
tunate. The  individual  study  of  the  criminal  and  crime  is  a  necessity 
if  we  are  to  be  protected  from  ex  convicts,  the  most  costly  and  the  most 
dangerous  class  we  have.  But  the  criminal  can  not  be  studied  without 
being  seen  and  examined.  For  the  love  of  science  and  humanity  we 
permit  the  examination  of  the  sick,  of  pregnant -women  by  young  men, 
manipulation  in  surgical  clinics  of  fractured  members;  the  visiting, 
examination,  and  individual  study  of  the  insane,  although  these  are 
sometimes  injurious  to  the  insane.  But  the  criminal  may  not  receive 

aFor  a  bibliography  of  criminology  see  Hearing  before  House  Judiciary  Committee 
on  bill  to  establish  a  laboratory,  etc.  (57th  Congress,  1st  session). 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  81 

visits,  may  not  submit  to  a  scientific  examination.  Why  should  crim- 
inals be  so  privileged  a  class  ?  An  accused  innocent  person  may  have  his 
name  and  life,  with  photograph,  published  in  the  newspapers;  and  yet 
objections  are  raised  to  the  study  of  habitual  criminals  for  scientific 
purposes. 

Benedikt,  a  specialist  in  craniology  at  the  University  of  Vienna, 
sa}Ts  that  to  correct  the  criminal  and  protect  society  the  criminal  must 
be  studied  scientifically.  For  this  puspose  the  universities,  higher 
courts  of  justice,  and  prisons  should  have  places  for  instruction  and 
investigation. 

CRIMINALS   NOT   SO   ABNORMAL. 

Should  a  philosopher  desire  to  study  normal  human  nature  experi- 
mentally, he  could  do  this  best  in  prison,  for  probably  nine-tenths  of 
prisoners  are  criminals  by  occasion — that  is,  their  crime  is  due  mainly 
to  bad  social  conditions;  their  personality  differs  little  or  none  at  all 
from  that  of  the  average  man,  so  that  any  results  gained  here  relate 
to  normal  man.  But  there  is  an  additional  advantage,  questions  can 
be  asked  and  investigations  permitted  that  would  be  difficult  with 
normal  man  outside  of  prison.  The  prisoner  has  much  less  to  lose  and 
will  often  make  confessions  that  few  outside  of  prison  would  care  to 
make,  giving  the  deepest  insight  into  human  nature.  Another  advan- 
tage is  that  the  exact  conditions,  such  as  regularity  in  habits  of  life, 
diet,  etc.,  are  known,  and  thus  a  more  favorable  condition  of  scientific 
inquiry  is  afforded.  This  is  especially  true  in  reformatories,  industrial 
schools,  houses  of  refuge,  etc. ;  most  of  the  inmates  are  entirety  normal; 
it  is  abnormal  surroundings,  such  as  poverty  or  drunkenness  at  home, 
that  brought  them  here,  and  not  abnormal  natures  in  the  children 
themselves.  But  it  may  be  added,  that  if  children  remain  long  enough 
in  such  conditions  they  will  be  liable  to  develop  whatever  criminal 
tendencies  are  in  them.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  about  10  per 
cent  of  inmates  are  incorrigible;  that  is,  the}^  are  criminals  by  nature. 
As  their  incorrigibility  is  shown  by  repeated  acts,  it  is  not  so  difficult 
to  select  these  cases.  This  is  not  saying  that  such  and  such  a  case  can 
not  be  cured,  but  intelligent  prison  officials  of  long  experience  doubt 
the  probability  of  reformation. 

CRIME    NOT   A    DISEASE. 

This  fact  of  incorrigibility  may  be  a  reason  why  crime  has  been  con- 
sidered a  disease.  Reports  from  the  principal  penitentiaries  of  this 
country  recently  gathered  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  show  82  per 
cent  in  good  health,  11  per  cent  in  fair  health.  If  crime  is  a  disease, 
it  would  seem  that  it  has  little  to  do  with  what  is  ordinarily  designated 
under  this  term.  Some  have  sought  by  the  study  of  criminals'  brains 
to  show  anatomical  anomalies  indicating  disease;  but  there  is  little 
agreement  in  these  investigations.  But  if  there  were  agreement,  it 
would  only  indicate  probabilities,  not  certainties,  for  comparatively 
few  brains  of  criminals  have  been  studied.  Even  in  the  case  of  the 
insane  it  is  not  demonstrated  that  mental  disease  necessarily  involves 
brain  disease;  yet  most  investigators  believe  that  it  does,  and  with 
good  reason.  But  there  have  been  cases  of  insanity  in  which  cerebral 
anomalies  have  been  sought  for  in  vain.  To  say  that  the  cause  was 
functional  and  so  did  not  leave  any  traces  is  a  hypothesis,  but  not 
knowledge  in  the  scientific  sense.  Now,  in  the  case  of  the  criminal,  the 
too  common  statement  that  crime  is  disease,  is  speculation,  not  fact. 

S.  Doc.  400 6 


82  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

FREEDOM  OF   CRIMINALS7  WILL. 

A  general  sociological  and  ethical  maxim  is  that  the  idea  of  wrong 
depends  upon  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  physical  danger  or  injury 
which  a  thought,  feeling,  volition,  or  action  brings  to  humanity. 

This  principle  should  be  applied  to  degrees  of  exaggerated  wrong  or 
crime.  But  it  may  be  asked  if  the  degree  of  freedom  or  of  personal 
guilt  should  not  be  the  basis  of  punishment.  The  force  of  this  objec- 
tion is  evident;  the  idea  of  freedom  has  been  the  basis  of  criminal  law; 
it  has  also  been  sanctioned  by  the  experience  of  the  race;  and,  although 
no  claim  is  made  of  carrying  it  into  practice  without  serious  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  strict  justice  (difficulties  inevitable  to  any  system), 
yet  it  has  been  not  only  of  invaluable  service,  but  a  necessity  to 
humanity.  This  is  not  only  true  on  criminal  lines,  but  this  idea  has 
been  the  conscious  basis  of  our  highest  moral  ideals. 

But  at  the  same  time  the  exaggeration  of  the  idea  of  freedom  has 
been  one  of  the  main  causes  of  vengeance,  which  has  left  its  traces  in 
blood,  fire,  and  mart3Trdom;  and  though  at  present  vengeance  seldom 
seeks  such  extreme  forms,  yet  it  is  far  from  extinct.  On  moral  and 
on  biblical  grounds,  as  far  as  man  is  concerned,  vengeance  can  find 
little  support.  With  few  exceptions,  a  revengeful  tone  or  manner 
toward  a  prisoner  (the  same  is  true  outside  of  prison)  always  does 
harm,  for  it  stirs  up  similar  feelings  in  the  prisoner,  which  are  often 
the  cause  of  his  bad  behavior  and  crime.  Kindness,  with  firmness, 
is  the  desirable  combination. 

If  we  were  obliged  to  withhold  action  in  the  case  of  any  criminal  for 
the  reason  that  we  did  not  know  whether  or  in  what  degree  he  was 
innocent  or  guilty,  from  the  standpoint  of  freedom  of  will,  the  com- 
munity would  be  wholly  unprotected.  If  a  tiger  were  loose  in  the 
streets,  the  first  question  would  not  be  whether  he  was  guilty  or  not. 
We  should  imprison  the  criminal,  first  of  all,  because  he  is  dangerous 
to  the  community. 

THE   STUDY   OF   CRIMINALS. a 

At  present  our  jurists  study  law  books,  not  criminals,  and  yet 
nearly  one-half  the  time  of  our  courts  is  given  to  criminals.  The  indi- 
vidual study  of  the  criminal  and  crime  is  a  necessit3r,  if  we  are  to  be 
protected  from  ex  convicts — the  most  costly  and  most  injurious  citizens 
we  have. 

A  complete  study  of  a  criminal  includes  his  history,  genealogy,  and 
all  particulars  concerning  himself  and  his  surroundings  previous  to  and 
during  his  criminal  act;  also  a  study  of  him  in  tlie  psychophysical 
sense — that  is,  experiments  upon  his  mind  and  body  with  instruments 
of  precision — measuring,  for  example,  his  thought-time,  sense  of  sight, 
hearing,  touch,  taste,  smell,  pressure,  heat,  and  cold;  also  an  examina- 
tion of  his  organs  after  death,  especially  of  his  brain.  It  is  evident 
that  no  one  person  could  make  an  adequate  study  of  a  criminal.  The 
microscopical  anatomy  of  the  brain  alone,  with  its  physiology,  is  more 
than  the  life  work  of  many  men  could  accomplish.  Criminology, 
therefore,  depends  for  its  advancement  upon  the  results  of  numerous 
departments  of  investigation. 

a" Education,  and  Patho-social  studies"  (by  author),  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education;  also  "Le  Criminel-Type "  (by  author) /published  in 
France. 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 


83 


CRIMINOLOGY   NOT  YET   A   SCIENCE. 

In  a  rigid  sense  criminology  is  no  more  a  science  than  sociology. 
Like  many  other  branches  of  study,  they  are  called  sciences  by  cour- 
tesy. But  the  empirical  study  of  human  beings,  with  whatever  class 
it  begins,  is  an  important  step  toward  a  scientific  sociology.  Crimi- 
nology is  an  initiatory  step  in  the  direct  study  of  individuals  themselves 
and  their  exact  relations  to  their  surroundings.  The  practical  and 
scientific  value  of  such  study  consists  in  showing  more  clearly  what 
normal  society  is  or  ought  to  be,  just  as  the  study  of  insanity  gives  by 
contrast  an  insight  into  mental  health. 

PHYSIOLOGY   OF   THE   CRIMINAL'S   BRAIN. 

As  already  indicated,  knowledge  of  the  criminal's  brain,  as  well  as  of 
the  brain  in  general,  is  very  inadequate,  so  that  any  definite  conclusions 
are  unwarranted.  It  may  be  said  that  the  fact  of  a  criminal  having 
mental  anomalies  and  at  the  same  time  cerebral  or  cranial  ones,  does 
not  show  that  either  one  is  the  cause  of  the  other,  although  it  may 
justify  a  presumption  that  they  are  in  some  way  related;  for  such  con- 
clusions are  based  upon  the  anatomy  rather  than  the  physiology  of  the 
brain;  as  to  the  latter,  little  is  known.  It  is  easy  to  conceive  that  brain 
circulation,  qualitative  and  quantitative,  has  as  much  to  do  in  its  effect 
on  the  mind  as  anatomical  conditions.  It  is,  however,  reasonable  to 
assume  that  in  the  last  analysis  every  physiological  irregularity  is 
based  upon  an  anatomical  one;  }^et  the  reverse  may  be  assumed  also. 
The  probability  would  seem  to  be  that  the  physiological  and  anatomical 
mutually  act  and  react,  one  upon  the  other;  and  to  decide  which  is 
primary  is  wholly  beyond  our  present  knowledge. 

s 

MEASUREMENTS   OF   EMOTION. 

*  Measurements  of  sensibility  by  instruments  of  precision  have  not 
been  carried  very^  far.  As  an  illustration  of  the  probable  importance 
of  this  method  of  study,  we  give  a  diagram  of  the  plethysmograph  of 

Mosso.  The  purpose  of  this  instru- 
ment is  to  show  the  effect  of  the  emo- 
tions upon  the  circulation  of  the  arterial 
blood. 

This  instrument  is  one  among  others 
belonging  to  the  Bureau  of  Education, 
constituting  the  nucleus  of  a  physio- 
educational  laboratory.  It  consists  of 
a  cylindrical  vessel,  G,  suited  for  the 
limb  (the  arm);  the  opening  through 
which  the  limb  is  introduced  is  closed 
with  caoutchouc  and  the  vessel  is  filled 
with  water.  The  arrangement  is  such 
that  any  increase  or  decrease  in  the  vol- 
ume of  water  in  the  vessel  G  causes  the  weight  N  to  rise  or  fall.  On 
this  weight  is  attached  a  small  bar  which  can  be  made  to  register  its 
upward  or  downward  movement  on  a  revolving  cylinder.  As  the  arm 
enlarges  from  an  increased  supply  of  blood  the  curve  registered  on  the 
cylinder  is  upward.  Since  the  flow  of  venous  blood  is  regarded  as 
uniform  in  the  passive  limb,  an  increase  of  the  volume  of  the  arm 


The  Plethysmograph. 


84  A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

shows  a  greater  velocity  in  the  flow  of  arterial  blood  in  the  limb.  By 
having  the  criminal  insert  his  arm  into  the  cylinder,  some  of  the  effects 
of  ideas  on  his  emotional  nature  through  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
will  be  registered,  giving  involuntary  testimony  as  to  his  nervous  and 
physical  nature.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  one  when  the  sentence  of  a  judge 
was  read,  a  decrease  in  flow  of  blood  was  observed  by  the  lowering 
of  the  curve,  but  the  sight  of  a  cigar  or  a  glass  of  wine  raised  the 
curve,  which  is  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  flow  of  arterial  blood  in 
the  arm.  In  the  case  of  a  brutal  murderer,  the  flow  was  little  affected 
by  the  sight  of  a  pistol,  whereas  in  normal  man  there  is  a  decided 
effect.  The  value  of  such  an  instrument  for  investigations  on  normal 
people  will  also  be  evident  when  we  consider  that  both  mental  depres- 
sion and  sleep  may  cause  the  curve  to  lower;  during  straining  and 
coughing  the  curve  rises,  but  falls  in  sighing. 

Although  little  has  been  done  with  the  plethysmograph  as  yet,  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  important  bearing  it  may  have  on  educational  and 
psycho-physical  questions.  Thus  a  pupil  with  his  arm  in  the  vessel 
can  be  set  to  performing  mathematical  calculations  or  composing  sen- 
tences, or  varied  ideas  may  be  presented  to  his  mind,  and  the  effects 
of  these  mental  states  or  studies  on  the  circulatory  system  can  be  seen. 
As  it  is  very  probable  that  an  increase  of  circulation  in  the  arm, 
psychically  caused,  means  a  decrease  of  circulation  in  the  brain,  we 
are  able  to  study  directly  the  influence  of  different  mental  conditions 
on  circulation  in  the  brain. 

MORAL   OBTUSENESS.a 

The  extreme  moral  insensibility  of  habitual  criminals  can  not  be 
better  shown  than  by  their  words  and  acts,  often  naively  expressed. 
A  criminal  whose  brother  was  being  executed  stole  a  purse  and  watch 
and  said,  "  What  a  misfortune  my  brother  is  not  here  to  have  his 
share."  Some  speak  so  coldly  and  unconcernedly  of  their  crimes  in 
court  that  they  would  be  taken  for  witnesses  rather  than  authors  of 
their  deeds.  Pity  for  the  suffering  of  others  is  very  feeble.  One 
reminds  the  priest  (preaching  to  him  repentance)  of  the  wine  he  had 
promised  him  fifteen  days  previously;  and  when  mounting  the  scaf- 
fold the  last  and  only  thing  which  he  said  was  to  ask  his  wife,  who 
was  his  accomplice,  to  give  him  credit  for  37  francs.  Another,  from 
the  three  executioners  desired  to  choose  his  "professor."  Another 
complained  of  the  condition  of  the  streets  through  which  he  was 
brought  to  the  scaffold. 

THE    DECEITFULNESS   OF   CRIMINALS. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  power  of  deceit  of  which  man  is  capable  has 
been  shown  on  the  scaffold.  There  are  too  many  people  who  believe 
that  no  one  would  tell  a  falsehood  when  facing  death.  The  fact  that 
many  hold  this  idea  encourages  criminals  to  insist  on  their  innocence 
to  the  very  last.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  more  intelligent  crimi- 
nals; for  they  see  they  have  little  to  lose  but  some  things  to  gain  as 
far  as  their  reputation  is  concerned;  for  if  they  do  not  confess,  many, 
perhaps,  may  believe  them  to  be  innocent  or  even  consider  them  martyrs. 
Then,  too,  they  may  deny  their  guilt  for~the  sake  of  their  family. 

"For  criminal  psychology  and  cases  of  recidivation  see  Hearing  before  Committee 
on  Judiciary  of  the  House  on  bill  to  establish  a  laboratory,  etc. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  85 

Criminals  probably  fear  death  more  than  other  men,  but  their 
intense  vanity  helps  them  to  conceal  it,  just  as  their  lack  of  foresight 
and  impetuosity  makes  them  appear  courageous.  Not  a  few  have 
been  known  to  confess  their  faults  to  Him  wha  grants  divine  pardon 
and  then  proclaim  with  a  loud  voice  their  innocence  and  die  in  contra- 
diction with  themselves. 

PREVENTION   OF   CRIME. 

"When  the  cause  of  a  particular  crime  is  found,  this  indicates  the 
most  active  cause,  but  not  the  only  one.  There  may  be  specific  rem- 
edies for  specific  cases,  but  they  can  only  be  determined  by  special 
study  of  the  individuals.  While  some  cases  can  not  be  reached,  the 
great  majority  can  be  made  susceptible  to  reformation,  or  at  least 
improvement.  Often  the  truest  and  best  advice  a  physician  can  give 
to  his  patient  is  to  keep  up  the  general  health,  and  nature  will  be  his 
best  servant  in  resisting  all  attacks  of  disease.  The  same  principle 
applies  in  aiding  one  to  overcome  temptations  to  evil  or  crime.  Such 
a  remedy  consists  in  moral  and  intellectual  habits  being  implanted  in 
children,  which  will  give  a  constant  resistance  to  all  temptation,  and 
be  even  an  unconscious  force  when  self-control  is  lost.  Little  can  be 
expected  from  palliative  remedies  as  long  as  this  educational  remedy  is 
not  thoroughly  carried  out. 

BERTILLON    SYSTEM    OF   MEASUREMENT. 

Crime  is  encouraged  from  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  one  person 
from  another,  so  that  habitual  and  professional  criminals  escape  pun- 
ishment. 

The  Bertillon  system,  although  intended  primarily  for  a  practical  end, 
can  be  made  of  scientific  value  as  far  as  it  goes.  Its  measurements  are 
length  and  width  of  head,  distance  between  zygomatic  arches,  length  of 
left  foot,  of  left  middle  finger,  left  little  finger,  left  forearm,  and  length 
and  width  of  ear.  There  is  a  descriptive  part,  including  observation  of 
the  bodily  shape  and  movements.  Deformities,  peculiar  marks  on  the 
surface  of  the  body  resulting  from  disease  or  accident,  and  other  signs,  as 
moles,  warts,  scars,  tattooings,  etc.,  are  noted.  Experience  has  shown 
that  absolute  certainty  of  identity  is  possible  by  the  Bertillon  system. 
But  the  full  benefits  of  a  practical  system  of  identification  can  not  be 
reached  unless  applied  to  all  individuals.  There  might  be  at  first  sen- 
timental objections,  as  has  happened  in  things  subsequently  of  great 
utility  to  society.  No  one  who  intended  to  be  an  honorable  citizen 
would  have  anything  to  fear;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  would  afford 
protection  to  humanit3r  in  enabling  society  to  find  its  enemies.  This 
certainty  of  identification  would  discourage  dishonest  voting,  assist  in 
recognizing  deserters  from  the  Army,  in  enforcing  laws,  and  in  facili- 
tating many  business  matters. 

CRIMINAL   ARISTOCRACY,  OR  THE   MAFFIA. 

The  aristocratic  sentiment  is  found  among  the  lower  forms  of  life, 
where  it  does  not  seem  to  have  degenerated,  as  in  man.  It  is  easily 
traced  through  the  savage  world  up  to  man,  where,  if  it  does  not  take 
the  form  of  a  government,  it  seems  to  exist  in  classes  or  individuals  as 


86  A    PLAN    FOB    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

much  as  ever.  While  this  is  manifest  enough  in  the  higher  circles,  it 
is  just  as  evident  among  the  unfortunate  and  lower.  The  poor  on  the 
second  floor  of  the  tenement  house  consider  themselves  superior  to 
those  on  the  top  floor.  In  the  almshouse  and  insane  asylum  the  same 
feeling  is  the  cause  of  many  petty  quarrels.  Among  criminals,  both  in 
and  out  of  prison,  the  aristocratic  sentiment  often  shows  itself  in  the 
form  of  associations.  The  highway  robber  detests  the  petty  thief,  and 
the  most  brutal  murderers  hate  liars  and  consider  them  cowards. 

Association  strengthens  criminals-  by  discipline,  develops  their  old 
savage  tendencies  and  causes  them  through  vanity  to  commit  atrocities 
that  would  be  repugnant  were  each  of  them  alone. 

The  purpose  of  criminal  associations  is  almost  always  to  appropriate 
the  property  of  others.  The}T  are  mostly  composed  of  unmarried 
young  men,  who  are  without  education.  In  their  organizations  many 
nave  an  armed  chief  with  dictatorial  power,  and  his  authority,  as  in 
savage  tribes,  comes  from  personal  qualities.  There  is  sometimes  a 
division  of  labor—  there  is  an  executioner,  a  schoolmaster,  secretary, 
priest,  physician,  and  sometimes  a  surgfeon,  charged  to  disarticulate 
the  fingers,  so  that  expertness  at  stealing  can  be  acquired.  Some  asso- 
ciations are  not  allowed  to  steal  in  the  locality  where  they  live,  so  that 
they  may  have  safe  domicile.  If  anyone  is  put  in  prison  for  a  small 
offense,  they  take  the  precaution  to  hide  nails  and  files  in  the  cracks  in 
the  walls.  When  they  walk  with  their  booty,  the  women  go  ahead, 
holding  the  packages  as  if  nursing  a  child.  In  some  societies  each  has 
a  manual  for  action  and  dictionary  for  slang;  some  imitate  epileptics 
by  falling  down  in  a  crowded  street,  simulating  a  fit,  and  consorts  pick 
the  pockets  of  those  pressing  up  to  see  the  supposed  victim;  others 
play  the  part  of  the  insane  or  deaf-mute. 

One  of  the  well-known  criminal  organizations  is  the  Maffia,  an  asso- 
ciation of  malefactors,  whose  home  is  in  Sicily.  As  a  rule,  it  has  no 
secret  sects,  statutes,  regular  meetings,  or  organization.  Its  power, 
however,  is  veiy  great;  it  is  incarnated  in  the  Sicilians.  It  is  divided 
into  two  clans,  the  Maffia  of  the  city  and  the  Maffia  of  the  country. 
They  operate  together,  sustain  one  another,  and  divide  the  booty. 
The  members  of  the  city  Maffia  steal,  assassinate,  seek  to  get  posses- 
sion of  the  large  proceeds,  and  to  hold  the  association  in  their  grasp. 
The  rustic  members  are  bands  of  from  ten  to  twenty  brigands,  who 
infest  the  country,  causing  terror  everywhere.  The  Maffia  are  pro- 
fessional criminals,  and  desire  to  become  rich  by  this  method.  They 
have  their  own  code  of  justice,  which  is  not  social  justice;  their  ver- 
dicts are  unchangeable  and  prompt.  A  witness  condemned  by  the 
Maffia  is  killed  within  twenty-four  hours.  They  work  by  terror.  A 
judge  will  avoid  condemning  a  criminal  through  fear  of  being 
stabbed.  A  witness  against  the  criminal  shares  the  same  danger.  The 
prefect  of  Palermo  defines  the  Maffia  as  a  latent  and  pernicious  power 
in  a  country  where  corruption  and  reaction  against  authority  is  a 
heritage  of  the  past.  By  the  aid  of  this  society  people  of  every  class 
yield  to  a  reciprocal  assistance  in  view  of  defense,  plunder,  gain, 
power,  vengeance  in  using  all  the  means  that  law,  morality,  and  civil- 
ization detest  and  condemn.  The  rich  practice  it  to  protect  their  per- 
son and  property. 

There  are  classes  of  Maffiosi — the  Maffioso  of  action,  that  is,  brigand, 
the  thief,  or  the  assassin;  the  secret  Maffioso,  who  gathers  and  distrib- 
utes the  news  and  is  a  silent  aid  for  the  perpetration  of  crimes;  the 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  87 

Maffioso  manuten  golo,  through  fear  or  interest,  is  the  purveyor  and 
receiver  of  stolen  goods  for  the  Maffiosi  of  action. 

The  Bassa  Maffia  is  a  lower  grade  of  the  society.  Here  any  scamp 
who  thinks  he  has  courage  can  become  a  Maffioso;  he  threatens  to  kill 
some  one  and  is  honored  by  all.  The  Alta  Maffia  seeks  to  make  a 
show  of  good  manners,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  in  accord  with  the 
brave  of  the  Maffiosi  of  low  extraction. 

The  Bravi,  or  supreme  chiefs,  are  sometimes  elegantly  clothed  and 
wear  3  el  low  gloves.  Then  there  are  the  stabbers  and  the  thieves. 
They  seek  financial  aid  in  enterprises  of  vengeance,  in  clandestine  lotter- 
ies, in  illicit  profit  from  public  works,  and  sometimes  in  blackmailing. 

They  all  follow  faithfully  their  unwritten  code.  Here  are  some  of 
the  principles:  To  keep  absolute  silence  concerning  the  crimes  which 
they  witness,  and  to  be  ready  to  give  false  testimony  in  order  to  cover 
up  traces;  to  give  protection  to  the  rich  for  money  considerations;  to 
defy  public  force  at  all  times  and  everywhere,  and  always  to  be  armed; 
to  fight  a  duel  for  the  most  frivolous  motives,  and  not  to  hesitate  to 
stab  treacherously;  to  avenge  at  any  price  injuries  received,  even  if  one 
is  intimately  related  to  the  offender.  Whoever  is  found  wanting  in 
any  of  these  respects  is  declared  infamous,  which  means  that  he  should 
be  killed  without  delay,  even  if  in  prison;  if  weapons  are  wanting,  to 
suffocate  him  in  his  pail.  He  receives  also  an  order  to  give  himself 
up  to  death.  Knowing  the  condemnation  to  be  irrevocable,  he  strictly 
obeys.  Before  killing  a  comrade,  one  notifies  him  by  drawing  a  cross  on 
his  door  or  by  shooting  a  pistol  at  his  house.  Lombroso  has  seen  many 
escape  death  by  seeking  mercy  in  being  shut  up  alone  in  a  prison  cell. 

Like  ordinary  rascals,  they  have  their  slang.  They  say  "sleep"  in- 
stead of  death, ' '  cats  "  for  war,  ' 4  ruby  "  for  eye, ' '  product  of  extortion  " 
for  linen,  "tic-tac"  for  revolver.  Their  principal  home  is  in  prison. 
They  are  firm  in  their  hatred.  Lombroso  tells  of  one,  who,  feeling 
himself  the  weaker  one,  kept  his  vengeance  for  fifteen  years,  until  at 
last  his  adversary  was  condemned  to  death.  Then  he  petitioned  the 
Naples  court  and  obtained  the  favor  of  filling  the  office  of  executioner. 

The  most  complete  organization  of  criminal  aristocracy  is  the  Cam- 
morra  at  Naples.  The  Maffia  is  a  variety  of  the  Cammorra.  A  further 
study  of  the  Maffia  can  be  pursued  perhaps  in  no  better  way  than  by 
describing  the  Cammorra. 

This  organization  consists  of  a  number  of  prisoners,  or  ex-convicts, 
formed  into  small  independent  groups,  but  under  one  hierarchy.  The 
aspiring  candidate  must  prove  that  he  is  courageous  and  that  he  can 
keep  a  secret.  He  should  kill  or  wound  anyone  who  would  name  to 
him  the  sect;  if  victims  were  wanting,  he  must  fight  with  one  of  his 
future  colleagues  with  a  knife.  Formerly  the  test  was  a  more  difficult 
one,  where  the  candidate  was  obliged  to  raise  a  piece  of  money  while 
the  Camniorrists  pierced  it  with  their  daggers.  He  must  submit  to  an 
apprenticeship  of  two,  three,  and  sometimes  eight  years;  he  is  in  service 
of  another,  who  gives  him  most  fatiguing  and  perilous  things  to  do,  allow- 
ing him  a  few  cents  once  in  a  while,  for  charity's  sake.  After  he  has 
gained  the  esteem  of  his  master  by  zeal  and  submission,  a  meeting  is 
called  and  his  reception  as  a  Cammorrist  is  deliberated  upon.  If 
received,  he  must  fight  again  in  the  presence  of  the  assembly;  he  takes 
the  oath  over  two  daggers  forming  a  cross,  that  he  will  be  faithful  to 
his  associates,  show  himself  in  everything  an  enemy  of  authority;  have 
no  relation  at  all  with  the  police;  never  denounce  thieves,  but  to  have 


88  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

a  particular  affection  toward  them,  as  toward  those  who  expose  their 
line  continuaJily.  After  this  a  banquet  finishes  the  celebration. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters  is  the  distribution  of  "lacam- 
morra,"  a  little  vessel  which  contains  the  extortions  in  gambling  rooms, 
brothels,  from  those  who  sell  watermelons  and  newspapers,  from  hack- 
men  and  beggars,  and  from  prisoners.  These  last  furnish  the  best 
revenue.  On  entering  prison  the  "  unfortunate  "must  give  a  tenth  of 
his  possession,  and  pay  for  drinks,  food,  gambling,  and  for  sleeping 
on  an  easier  bed. 

A  Cammorrist  can  not  kill  a  comrade  without  permission  from  the 
chief,  but  in  revenge  he  can  make  away 'with  anyone  else.  If  there 
are  doubts  as  to  the  fidelity  of  a  colleague,  before  condemning  him 
they  send  him  a  plate  of  macaroni;  if  he  refuses  to  eat  it  (for  fear  of 
poison,  perhaps)  they  feel  certain  of  his  guilt,  and  his  condemnation  is 
pronounced,  and  lots  are  drawn  to  indicate  the  apprentice  who  must 
execute  it.  This  is  done  punctually,  as  shown  by  this  fact:  A  prisoner 
tells  the  governor  of  a  castle  that  a  Cammorra  had  been  established 
for  some  time,  and  that  it  was  his  misfortune  to  be  one  of  the  chiefs. 
One  of  the  laws  is  to  compel  all  the  convicts  to  pay  2  cents  a  day.  A 
certain  convict,  Razo,  would  not  submit  to  this.  The  chiefs  of  the 
Cammorra  voted  unanimously  to  put  him  to  death.  But  the  lot  fell  to 
him  (the  chief)  to  strike  the  blow;  he  accepted  and  was  to  commit  the 
crime  that  morning.  But  on  reflection  at  the  sad  consequences  of  such 
a  forfeit,  the  cause  of  which  was  only  2  cents,  he  restrained  his  arm 
and  went  out  of  the  castle.  He  then  begged  the  governor  of  the  castle 
to  isolate  him,  for,  after  this  treachery,  his  comrade  chiefs  would  kill 
him  without  pity. 

Yet  the  Cammorra  is  not  wholly  without  heart,  as  shown  in  the  case 
of  the  young  girl  whose  lover  had  been  condemned  to  death  for  re- 
fusing to  pay  his  contribution.  She  asked  that  her  lover  might  be 
pardoned,  and  it  was  accorded  to  her  with  Olympian  majesty. 

CRIMINAL   SUGGESTION.* 

It  is  a  common  experience  that  when  one  of  a  party  yawns  another 
is  liable  to  do  the  same.  There  is  an  instinctive  suggestion  to  look 
when  the  crowd  are  gazing  on  the  street.  This  elementary  power  of 
suggestion  becomes  morbid  in  the  case  of  the  habitual  thief.  Any 
desirable  object  he  sees  suggests  taking  it;  there  is  a  spontaneous  feel- 
ing too  tempting  to  resist.  If  questioned  closely  why  he  takes  it  the 
man's  last  and  repeated  answer  is  simply  that  he  likes  to. 

It  was  the  custom  in  Denmark  during  the  last  century  to  have  a  pro- 
cession of  priests,  repeating  psalms,  accompany  the  criminals  from 
prison  to  the  place  of  execution,  after  which  a  sermon  was  preached. 
The  contagious  suggestion  from  this  display  made  condemned  crimi- 
nals ambitious  to  die  amid  such  pomp.  The  result  seemed  to  be  a  large 
increase  of  murder  in  the  country.  At  one  time  martyrdom  became 
so  contagious  in  the  church  that  it  was  forbidden.  Religious  history 
contains  many  examples  of  excessive  enthusiasm  arising  from  ner- 
vous contagion.  In  massacres,  after  a  few  men  have  been  killed  the 
sight  of  blood  intoxicates  the  crowd,  who  rush  upon  the  prisoners  with 
fury  and  reckless  murder. 

a  Further  data  and  consideration  of  crimes  of  hypnotisers  will  be  found  in  Hearing 
before  House  Committee  on  Judiciary  on  bill  to'establish  a  laboratory,  etc. 


X  B  H  A  K 
OF  THE 

A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MATSf.  UNI  8 

^ 

Aubry a  defines  the  will  of  a  crowd  as  the  resultant  o 
and  reactions  of  the  individual  wills  in  contact.  This  collective  will 
can  be  led  by  suggestion  to  act  contrary  to  the  principles  of  many  of 
the  individuals  who  compose  it.  What  an  excited  crowd  will  do  no 
one  can  predict;  the  most  timid  man  has  been  transformed  into  a  beast. 
In  the  French  Revolution  certain  men  blamed  the  assassins  severely; 
but  later  these  same  men,  finding  themselves,  irom  curiosity  or  by 
accident,  in  the  presence  of  a  massacre,  were  overcome  by  the  excite- 
ment and  participated  in  the  slaughter.  In  a  crowd  some  people  are 
taken  with  dizziness;  others,  not  knowing  what  is  going  on,  are  influ- 
enced by  the  noise,  or  notified,  and  give  way  to  the  least  impulsion, 
imitating  those  around  them,  not  knowing  why;  they  may  take  arms 
without  suspecting  results.  It  is  thus  that  riots  sometimes  arise. 

War  springs  often  from  a  patriotic  suggestion,  and  frequently  over 
some  insignificant  question;  it  is  encouraged  by  the  younger  element 
in  the  nation  rather  than  by  the  more  experienced.  The  nation  strives 
to  annihilate  its  neighbors;  there  is  thought  of  little  else  than  the 
need  to  kill  the  enemy;  this  continuous  suggestion  becomes  contagious 
and  causes  each  citizen,  however  egotistic  and  selfish,  to  be  willing 
to  give  up  his  personal  interests  and  business  and  fight  for  his  country. 
Aubry  sa}^s  that  war  is  a  neurosis,  a  homicidal  insanity. 

In  Europe,  where  dislike  or  hatred  exists  between  nations,  the  im- 
mense standing  armies  are  a  constant  suggestion  of  future  utilization; 
they  are  a  menace  to  the  temporary  equilibrium  of  the  forces  of  hatred. 
The  frequent  outbursts  of  anarchistic  or  socialistic  radicalism  in  the 
destruction  of  life  or  property  are  symptomatic  of  the  neurotic  temper 
of  the  times,  and  are  a  sign  of  a  deeper  social  disease  arising  from  the 
unfortunate  condition  of  many  in  poverty  or  on  the  verge  of  poverty. 
Such  discontented  persons  are  particularly  susceptible  to  dangerous 
suggestions,  which  can  be  fanned  into  a  flame  by  the  daity  reading  of 
detailed  accounts  of  crime  against  government,  property,  or  life. 
Every  daring  robbeiy,  every  throwing  of  dynamite  or  other  riotous 
act,  is  almost  certain  to  be  followed  by  similar  crimes. 

A  woman  who  throws  vitriol  upon  her  lover  is  seldom  convicted. 
She  is  described  in  the  newspapers;  the  color  of  her  hair  and  her  other 
charms  are  dwelt  upon;  her  letters  and  her  photograph  are  published. 
Women  with  more  imagination  than  intelligence  are  fully  prepared  to 
imitate  the  heroine  when  any  peculiar  grievance  or  temptation  affords 
occasion.  The  force  of  such  suggestion  has  been  known  to  result  in 
epidemics  of  vitriol  throwing. 

With  those  illustrations  of  the  influence  of  criminal  suggestion  upon 
society  as  a  whole,  we  may  pass  to  the  consideration  of  cases  b  of  an 
experimental  nature,  and  other  special  cases. 

The  difference  between  criminal  suggestion,  criminal  hypnotism,  and 
somnambulism  in  its  deeper  stages  is  one  of  degree,  and  thus  individual 
cases  may  be  found  in  these  several  stages. 

It  is  possible  during  somnambulism  to  compel  certain  persons,  con- 
trary to  their  will,  to  commit  immoral  or  criminal  acts;  and,  according 
to  the  Nancy  school,  this  can  be  accomplished  after  the  subject  has 
returned  to  his  normal  state  and  at  an  exact  time  which  has  been  pre- 
viously suggested  to  the  subject  during  the  hypnotic  state.  The  writer 

aLa  Contagion  du  Meurte,  Paris,  1888. 

b  We  are  indebted  for  some  of  these  to  Dr.  Emile  Laurent,  formerly  "interne"  in 
the  prisons  of  Paris. 


90  A    PLAN    FOE   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

has  heard  Professor  Forel  tell  a  woman  in  the  hypnotic  state  that 
when  she  awoke  she  would  see  all  the  students  headless.  On  awaking 
she  looked  puzzled,  and,  on  being  asked  why,  said  that  the  students 
were  without  heads.  The  school  of  Salpetriere  does  not  admit  that 
post- hypnotic  suggestions  are  irresistible.  It  maintains  also  that  a 
person  while  in  a  state  of  somnambulism  is  always  a  person  who  can 
manifest  volition  in  resisting  suggestions  repugnant  to  a  profound 
sentiment.  Brouardel  holds  that  the  somnambulist  realizes  only  agree- 
able and  indifferent  suggestions.  Delboef a  says  that  the  hypnotized 
person  knows  that  he  is  playing  a  comedy.  Laurent b  avows  that  he 
has  seen  some  somnambulists  successfully  resist  all  post-hypnotic  sug- 
gestions, and  others  who  were  unable  to  resist  doing  acts  repugnant  to 
themselves. 

Thus  Liegeois0  shows  that  a  hypnotized  person  can  be  made  to  sign 
a  false  note;  and  that  if  it  is  suggested  to  him  that  he  owes  the  money 
in  question,  he  will,  on  awaking,  hold  the  note  in  memory  and  con- 
sider it  genuine.  Liegeois  said  to  a  very  suggestable  lady,  "You 
know  that  I  lent  you  500  francs;  kindly  sign  a  note  that  will  give  me 
security."  "But,  sir,"  the  lady  replied,  "I  do  not  owe  you  anything; 
3^ou  never  lent  me  any  money."  "Your  memory  fails  you,  madame. 
I  will  recall  the  circumstances.  You  had  asked  me  for  this  sum,  and  I 
consented  to  lend  it  to  you.  I  gave  it  to  you  here  yesterday  in  five- 
franc  pieces."  By  the  force  of  his  look  and  by  his  affirmation  Liegeois 
gave  an  impression  of  sincerity.  Madame  hesitated;  her  thought  was 
troubled;  she  tried  to  remember;  obedient  to  the  suggestion,  she  at 
length  recalled  the  loan.  This  suggestion  assumed  in  her  mind  a  real 
character,  and  she  signed  the  note. 

While  it  is  undeniable  that  one  can  in  this  manner  be  made  to  sign 
a  false  note  or  will,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  experiment  would  suc- 
ceed in  ordinary  life,  outside  of  the  laboratory.  It  would  be  necessary 
that  the  note  should  be  made  payable  very  soon,  for  the  suggestion 
might  not  remain  very  long;  also  the  patient  would  reason  about  it; 
subsequently  the  truth  would  be  found  out,  and  the  hypnotizer  would 
be  in  danger. 

One  may  put  his  subject  under  hypnotic  influence  and  say  to  him  or 
her:  "You  will  steal  [such  and  sucn  a  sum  at  such  a  time];  you  will 
bring  it  to  me;"  or  "you  will  kill  [such  and  such  a  person],  whom  I 
detest.  After  you  have  done  this  you  will  awake;  but  you  must  not 
remember  that  I  have  made  you  do  this;  you  will  believe  that  you 
acted  of  your  own  accord."  Experimental  suggestions  of  this  nature 
have  succeeded;  but  if  they  should  be  tried  in  reality  the  perpetrator 
would  be  more  liable  to  be  detected  than  if  he  committed  the  deed  him- 
self; for  in  the  former  case  the  person  hypnotized  would  afterwards 
show  by  his  words  and  actions  that  something  was  wrong;  suspicion 
would  be  aroused,  and  it  would  be  discovered  that  he  was  hypno- 
tizable,  and  he  himself  as  well  as  friends  would  attribute  it  to  the 
hypnotizer. 

It  is  possible  to  violate  the  conscience  of  a  person  in  the  somnam- 
bulistic state  and  to  make  him  to  divulge  the  deepest  secrets.  Liebaut 
hypnotized  a  lady,  and  affirmed  that  he  was  a  priest  and  that  she  had 

*L' Hypnotisms  et  la  Liberte  des  Representations  Publiques. 
b  Les  Suggestions  Criminelles. 

cDe  la  Suggestion  et  du  Somnambulisme  dans  leurs  rapports  avec  la  jurisprudence 
etla  "m&licine"  legale,  Paris,  1889. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  91 

come  to  confession.  She  played  her  part  seriously.  Another  physi- 
cian had  questioned  his  hypnotized  patient  with  too  much  curiosit}^. 
The  patient,  after  some  hesitation,  much  blushing  and  embarrassment, 
said:  uMon  Dieu!  J'ai  aime  Monsieur."  The  physician  awoke  her 
immediately.  A  similar  case  was  that  of  a  lady  who,  during*  the  hyp- 
nosis, answered  questions  with  a  confidence  so  serious  and  dangerous 
to  herself  that  the  physicians  hastened  to  awaken  her. 

Bernheim  mentions  that  certain  subjects  who  have  been  frequently 
hypnotized  show  a  disposition  when  awake  to  obe}r  suggestions.  For 
example,  children,  who  are  very  impressionable,  have  hallucinations 
and  give  false  testimon}^.  Laurent  cites  a  mysterious  case  of  a  14- 
year-old  girl,  belonging  to  the  Reformed  confession,  who  disappeared, 
ilk 


Nineteen  Jewish  families  resided  in  the  town  where  she  lived.  The 
report  soon  spread  that,  in  order  to  obtain  her  blood  to  mix  with  the 
unleavened  bread,  the  Jews  had  killed  her.  She  had  disappeared  just 
before  Easter.  A  cadaver  was  discovered  in  the  river  and  recognized 
by  certain  persons  to  be  the  body  of  the  girl.  The  mother  of  the 

¥irl,  however,  was  incredulous,  and  would  not  recognize  her  daughter, 
hirteen  Jews  were  arrested  on  account  of  the  statement  of  the  son  of 
the  sexton,  a  boy  13  years  of  age.  After  being  questioned  at  length 
by  the  commissioner,  the  boy  made  confessions:  He  heard  a  cry;  he 
went  out  and  looked  through  the  keyhole  of  the  lock  of  the  temple; 
he  saw  Esther  stretched  upon  the  ground;  three  men  held  her  while  the 
butcher  bled  'her  by  the  throat  and  collected  the  blood  into  two  bowls. 
In  court  the  boy  persisted  in  those  confessions.  The  presence  of  his 
father,  with  twelve  other  Jews  who  were  threatened,  and  the  ardent 
supplications  that  he  should  tell  the  truth  were  of  no  avail .  He  repeated 
the  statements. 

Bernheim's  explanation  is  that  the  commissioner  by  questioning  the 
boy  suggested  the  matter  to  him.  His  imagination  was  struck  with 
terror;  the  scene  was  called  up  before  him;  a  retroactive  hallucination 
took  possession  of  him,  and  he  fancied  all  the  incidents  in  the  scene 
which  the  commissioner  had  mentioned.  It  was  just  as  one  can  do 
experimental^  in  profound  sleep;  the  hallucination  is  created;  the 
remembrance  of  the  fictitious  vision  is  so  vivid  that  the  subject  can 
not  escape  from  it. 

Liegeois  reports  a  case  of  a  woman  who  being  accused  of  infanticide 
at  first  denied  it,  but  on  being  further  questioned  by  the  police  com- 
missioner, and  asked  whether  she  had  not  placed  the  child  where  the 
pigs  were  kept,  after  much  hesitation  admitted  it.  The  sage-femme 
had  already  asked  her  the  same  question  and  she  had  confessed.  She 
renewed  her  confession  before  the  judge  and  the  court:  "1  took  my 
child;  I  opened  the  door  of  the  place  where  the  pigs  were;  I  threw  it 
in;  1  don't  believe  that  it  cried;  I  did  not  see  it  move."  When  this 
woman  was  taken  to  prison  it  became  known  that  she  was  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  pregnanc}7.  This  showed  conclusively  that  the 
crime  of  which  she  was  accused  and  convicted  was  impossible.  On 
being  questioned  further,  she  said  that  her  parents  and  the  sage-femme 
had  pressed  her  to  make  the  confession;  that  they  frightened  her  with 
the  prospect  of  a  severer  condemnation  if  she  did  not  confess.  Laurent, 
while  admitting  that  the  woman  was  vividly  impressed,  does  not 
believe  that  it  was  a  matter  of  suggestion.  He  thinks  it  was  a  matter 
of  persuasion  by  force,  if  she  knew  that  she  had  not  committed  the 
crime.  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  that  suggestion  and  persuasion 
cooperated. 


92  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

An  example  of  a  hysterical  hereditary  casea  is  that  of  a  man  who 
allowed  another  person,  whom  he  knew  but  slightly,  to  confide  to  him 
stolen  property,  which  he  was  persuaded  to  carry  to  the  pawn  shop. 
Whether  he  was  dupe  or  accomplice,  the  initiative  of  his  crime  was 
not  in  him.  A  few  days  later  the  same  man  was  imprisoned  for  three 
months  on  account  of  being  deceived.  Again  at  liberty,  he  became 
acquainted  with  a  woman  who  made  him  sell  for  her  a  gold  watch  and 
chain  that  she  had  stolen.  The  man  was  gentle,  well-disposed,  and 
generous,  but  he  was  easily  influenced.  His  will  had  been  paratyzed, 
and  in  each  crime  his  accomplice  had  the  control  of  him. 

Then,  there  is  the  phenomenon  of  autosuggestion,  which  can  take  the 
form  of  vengeance.  Some  men,  when  enraged,  treasure  up  thoughts 
of  revenge  against  which  neither  reason  nor  sentiment  is  of  avail. 
After  the  criminal  act  is  accomplished,  the  fixed  idea  disappears,  and 
the  subject  becomes  himself  again.  He  is  surprised  at  his  act,  and 
realizes  that  he  was  out  of  himself. 

Aided  by  her  son  a  woman  murdered  and  mutilated  her  infirm  hus- 
band on  the  highway.  They  left  his  body,  without  reflecting  that  it 
would  be  necessary  to  give  explanations  next  morning.  Dr.  Laurent's 
notion  is  that  the  woman  and  her  son  had  lived  for  months  with  the 
fixed  idea  of  ridding  themselves  of  this  man,  who  had  kept  them  in 
poverty;  that  they  were  haunted  by  the  suggestion  of  murder;  and 
that,  having  only  a  rudimentary  conscience,  they  did  not  attempt  to 
struggle  against  the  temptation.  To  add  to  the  autosuggestion, 
another  man,  who  was  enamored  of  this  woman,  had  promised  to 
marry  her;  this  further  obscured  their  conscience,  and  rendered  the 
murderous  suggestion  all-powerful.  Thus  they  lost  prudence,  and 
committed  a  crime  certain  to  bring  them  to  the  gallows. 

Tropmann  is  another  case,  best  explained  by  auto-suggestion.  Here 
is  a  young  man,  without  bad  antecedents,  who  commits  an  unheard-of 
montrosity,  with  premeditation  and  great  skill.  He  assassinates  an 
entire  family  of  seven  or  eight  persons.  He  enticed  the  father  into  a 
forest  of  Alsace,  poisoned  him  with  prussic  acid,  and  buried  him.  He 
dug  a  ditch  in  a  field,  enticed  the  elder  son  there,  brutally  murdered 
him,  and  buried  him.  He  dug  another  trench  for  the  mother  and 
children,  and,  after  enticing  them  there,  killed  them  with  a  pickax  and 
buried  them.  Tropmann  desired  to  go  to  America  to  pass  himself  off 
for  the  father,  and  by  some  unknown  means  realize  the  modest  fortune 
of  this  exterminated  family.  He  was  a  man  insignificant  in  appear- 
ance; his  physique  and  moral  character  would  not  indicate  that  he  was 
capable  of  such  an  infernal  act.  Bernheim  is  of  the  opinion  that,  in 
whatever  way  this  idea  may  have  entered  his  mind,  it  finally  became 
an  irresistible  auto-suggestion,  just  as  a  fixed  idea  of  suicide  may  cul- 
minate fatally. 

It  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  specific  method  of  procedure  in  order 
to  prevent  such  crimes.  In  social  as  in  bodity  diseases  there  are  cer- 
tain conditions  that  no  remedy  can  reach.  While  symptomatic  and 
palliative  treatment  is  possible,  the  state,  of  social  therapeutics,  like 
that  of  medical,  is  unscientific  and  far  from  satisf actor}7.  Often  the 
truest  and  best  advice  a  physician  can  give  to  his  patient  is  to  keep  up 
the  general  health;  nature  will  be  his  best  servant  in  resisting  all 

a  Laurent,  "Les  Suggestions  Criminelles. " 


A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  93 

attacks  of  disease.  The  same  principle  is  applicable  to  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  social  organism.  Since  there  is  no  "specific,"  the  remedy 
must  be  general,  gradual,  and  constant.  It  consists  in  religious, 
moral,  industrial,  and  intellectual  education  of  the  children  and  youth, 
especially  of  the  poor  unfortunate  and  weakling  classes.  The  most 
certain  preventive  is  the  early  incarnation  of  good  habits  in  children, 
which,  becoming  part  and  parcel  of  their  nervous  organization,  are  an 
unconscious  power  when  passion  or  perplexity  or  temptation  causes 
them  to  lose  self-control.  Without  this  inhibitory  anchor  many  are 
certain  to  go  astray.  This  power  is  generally  proof  against  all  crimi- 
nal hypnotic  suggestion.  The  methods  by  which  such  an  education  is 
to  be  best  accomplished  are  as  yet  problematic. 

EDUCATION   AND   CRIME. 

It  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  the  moral  side- of  education  is  as  diffi- 
cult as  it  is  important.  This  becomes  most  apparent  in  the  education 
of  the  dependent,  weak,  and  criminal  classes.  Any  educational  sys- 
tem that  can  succeed  here  can  with  slight  modifications  succeed  in  the 
community  at  large,  for  all  men  have  tendencies,  however  slight, 
toward  these  defects;  but,  by  force  of  character  or  surroundings,  the 
great  majority  have  been  able  to  resist  to  such  a  degree  as  not  to  fall. 

But  it  may  be  asked  to  what  extent  methods  of  education  for  normal 
individuals  may  be  adapted  to  those  who  are  abnormal.  An  individual 
may  be  said  to  be  abnormal  when  his  mental  or  emotional  character- 
istics are  so  divergent  from  those  of  the  ordinary  person  as  to  produce 
a  pronounced  moral  or  intellectual  deviation  or  defect.  To  distinguish 
such  abnormality  from  disease  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible;  but  in 
general  an  abnormality  is  called  disease  as  soon  as  it  reaches  a  certain 
degree;  but  it  may  also  be  an  excessive  degree  of  the  normal,  just  as 
in  the  physical  man  in  a  single  diseased  cell  the  normal  or  physio- 
logical processes  are  not  changed  in  kind,  but  only  in  degree,  or 
simply  act  at  an  inappropriate  time.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that, 
while  all  diseases  are  abnormal,  not  all  abnormalities  are  diseases. 
The  fact  that  the  same  functions  are  involved  in  both  normal  and 
abnormal  processes  (psychical  and  physical)  is  one  explanation  why 
the  same  methods  of  education  are  found  applicable  to  both. 

CLASSES   OF   SOCIETY.  a 

If,  then,  the  average  man  in  the  community  is  taken  as  a  normal 
type  and  individuals  are  classified  according  to  their  degree  of  like- 
ness or  unlikeness  to  him,  there  will  result  in  general  the  following 
divisions: 

(1)  The  normal  class  of  individuals,  who  greatly  exceed  all  other 
classes  in  number;  these  in  every  community  constitute  the  conserva- 
tive and  trustworthy  element  and  may  be  said  to  be  the  backbone  of 
the  race. 

(2)  The  dependent  class,  as  represented  in  almshouses,  hospitals, 
asylums  for  orphans  and  the  homeless,  and  similar  charitable  institu- 
tions.    According  to  the  census  of  1880,  in  the  United  States  the 
whole  number  of  such  individuals,  for  example,  amounted  to  123,626. 

(3)  The  delinquent  class,  as  found  in  all  penal  and  reformatory  insti- 
tutions, which,  according  to  the  same  census,  amounted  to  70,077. 

aFor  a  bibliography  of  genius,  insanity,  pauperism,  alcoholism,  and  crime  see 
Hearing  on  Bill  (H.  R.  14798)  before  Committee  on  Judiciary  to  establish  a  laboratory 
to  study  the  criminal,  pauper,  and  defective  classes. 


94  A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN. 

(4)  The  defective  class.     Here   belong  the  insane,  feeble-minded, 
idiotic,  and  imbecile,  amounting  in  all  to  168,854;  and  also  the  deaf, 
dumb,  and  blind,  numbering  82,806  in  all. 

(5)  Men  of  genius  or  great  talent. 

The  total  number  of  these  first  four  classes  in  the  United  States  for 
1880  was  445,363.  This,  of  course,  is  far  below  the  reality,  since 
many  are  not  sent  to  the  institutions  from  which  the  census  is  taken. 
It  will,  however,  give  an  idea  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of 
distinctively  abnormal  individuals — that  is,  less  than  half  a  millon  out 
of  fifty  million  inhabitants.  It  is  surprising  that  so  small  a  part  of 
the  community  can  cause  so  much  trouble,  danger,  and  expense.  But 
it  is  in  a  social  mechanism  as  in  a  mechanical,  where  one  little  part 
may  throw  the  whole  into  disorder.  Yet  the  importance  of  this  part 
does  not  lie  in  itself,  but  in  its  relations  to  the  others.  Thus  one 
crank  or  one  criminal  can  throw  the  whole  community  into  excitement 
often  causing  great  injury. 

The  delinquent  classes  approximate  nearest  to  the  normal  type,  for 
the  majority  deviate  principally  in  one  respect,  that  is,  in  a  weakness 
of  moral  sense  which  gives  away  to  temptation;  this  is  the  most  harm- 
ful deviation,  both  for  the  individual  and  society,  and  the  community 
justly  regard  these  classes  as  their  greatest  enemy. 

While  the  dependent  classes  owe  their  condition  directly  or  indi- 
rectly to  either  alcoholism  or  improvidence  or  general  mental  or 
physical  incapacity,  their  abnormality  may  be  regarded  as  more  dis- 
tinctly social  than  in  the  case  of  the  other  classes. 

The  insane  and  feeble-minded  are  the  largest  in  number  and  vary 
the  most  from  the  normal  type.  The  one  is  an  exaggeration  of  mental 
faculties  due  to  cerebral  irritation;  the  other  is  a  diminution  of  mental 
powers;  or  both  exaggeration  and  defect  may  coexist.  Feeble-minded- 
ness,  idiocy,  and  imbecility  may  be  due  to  an  immature  or  arrested 
development. 

There  is  a  natural  objection  to  calling  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  blind 
44 defectives,"  since  the  public  are  liable  to  suppose  that  this  term 
applies  to  the  mental  capacity,  which  in  many  cases  is  not  true.  Yet 
the  popular  prejudice  is  not  wholly  unfounded,  for  anyone  deprived 
of  such  important  senses  is  so  far  hindered  in  opportunities  for  knowl- 
edge. It  must  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  a  considerable  number  of 
the  feeble-minded  are  deaf  and  dumb  or  partially  so. 

The  division  of  the  abnormal  classes  into  dependent,  delinquent,  and 
defective,  while  by  no  means  exact,  is  as  convenient  as  any  perhaps. 
Any  exact  division  is  manL  'tly  impossible  for  the  defective  and  delin- 
quent are  generally  dependent  and  the  delinquent  are  often  defective, 
and  vice  versa. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  number  of  all  those  who  belong  to  the 
special  classes  is  unavoidable.  Thus  the  delinquent  class  are  the  most 
desirous  to  conceal  themselves.  As  to  the  insane,  there  are  many  such 
in  the  community  who  are  not  referred  to  as  such,  because  they  are 
harmless.  Many  families  seek  to  conceal  insanity  and  idiocy.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  exaggeration  in  the  number  of  the  poor,  for 
some  claim  to  be  in  poverty  in  order  to  receive  help.  There  is  also  a 
tendency  to  exaggerate  evil  or  misfortune  in  order  to  bring  out  a  more 
liberal  sympathy,  or  there  is  unfortunately  a  morbid  desire  to  picture 
the  world  in  its  darkest  colors. 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN.  95 


TEACHING    OF   PRACTICAL   MORALITY. 


From  the  point  of  view  of  society,  the  importance  of  these  classes  is 
not  according  to  their  number,  for  the  delinquent  are  the  most  injurious 
and  costly.  This  is  evident  when  one  considers  the  time  they  require 
from  the  police,  detectives,  and  courts.  There  is  much  to  indicate  that 
the  sociological  problem  involved  in  the  delinquent  and  dependent 
classes  is  at  its  foundation  an  educational  one.  Teaching  of  practical 
morality  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  good  habits  in  the  }7oung  is  doubtless 
the  surest  preventive  from  a  criminal  career.  A  general  criticism  of 
educational  systems  is  that  they  are  little  developed  on  their  moral 
side  as  compared  with  the  intellectual.  Perez  says  that  the  business 
of  education  should  be  much  more  concerned  with  the  habits  that  chil- 
dren acquire,  and  with  their  wills,  rather  than  with  the  moral  con- 
science. The  latter  is  the  blossom  that  will  be  followed  by  fruit,  but 
the  former  are  the  roots  and  branches.  While  the  moral  and  intellectual 
sides  of  education  necessarily  exist  together,  yet  society  is  most  solic- 
itous about  the  former,  for  an  individual  may  be  a  good  citizen  with 
little  instruction,  if  he  has  sound  morality;  but  the  reverse  is  not  true. 

There  is  a  special  difficulty  in  teaching  even  a  minimum  system  of 
morality,  for  the  desideratum  consists  not  only  in  inculcating  general 
principles,  but  by  indicating  courses  of  conduct  in  detail.  Generalities 
elevate  the  moral  tone,  but  details  incarnate  the  principles.  A  defi- 
nite course  of  conduct  is  needed,  }^et  broad  enough  to  apply  to  the 
average  individual.  In  the  province  of  personal  Irygiene  there  is  much 
to  be  done,  but  nothing  should  be  taught  unless  sanctioned  by  the 
most  competent  medical  authorities.  One  cleanly  habit  established 
suggests  others;  a  beginning,  with  a  few  details,  is  much  more  im- 
pressive than  generalities. 

Society  teaches  man}7  of  these  things  by  occasion,  when  the  poor  aie 
brought  into  hospitals  and  made  conscious  of  what  cleanliness  signi- 
fies, or  when  the  board  of  health  forces  this  idea  upon  the  community. 
Many  children  are  taught,  for  the  first  time,  lessons  of  cleanliness  upon 
entering  institutions  for  the  weakling  classes,  where  the  good  effects 
are  seen;  so  that  it  is  as  true  as  it  is  paradoxical  that  some  of  the 
enemies  of  the  State  are  receiving  a  most  practical  education  from  the 
State.  This,  however,  has  its  justification,  since  the  weak  need  more 
aid  than  the  stronger,  but  this  weakness  may  have  been  due  to  the 
neglect  of  such  education  at  the  outset. 

The  inmates  of  institutions  for  the  delinquent  and  dependent  differ 
little  or  none  at  all  from  individuals  outside.  The  excellencies  and 
defects  of  an  educational  system  can  be  carefully  studied  in  these  insti- 
tutions, for  all  are  under  the  same  conditions  and  can  be  controlled  in 
all  details  of  their  life.  In  addition  to  the  practical  value  of  the  expe- 
rience of  these  institutions  there  is  a  deeper  one.  One  of  the  main 
objects  of  education  is  to  eradicate  or  modif}7  undesirable  tendencies 
and  to  develop  the  favorable  ones.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  the 
rational  method  of  treatment,  which  is,  first,  to  study  the  unfavorable 
characteristics,  and,  second,  to  investigate  their  causes  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. Knowledge  thus  gained  will  be  the  most  reliable  in  correcting 
evil  tendencies  or  preventing  their  development.  By  such  a  method 
no  sudden  results  should  be  expected;  gradual  progress  is  all  that  can 
be  hoped  for.  A  thorough  study  of  this  nature  in  penal  and  reforma- 
tory institutions  is  possible;  the  effects  of  the  method  of  education  can 


96  A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

beclosely  observed  physically,  intellectually,  and  morally .  Thus,  when, 
for  instance,  an  inmate  ceases  to  reverse  his  drinking  cup  after  using 
it,  which  is  required  for  purposes  of  cleanliness  and  order,  this,  though 
a  very  slight  thing  in  itself,  indicates  that  he  is  becoming  careless  and 
losing  his  will  power  to  reform.  By  a  sort  of  radiation  other  negli- 
gences are  liable  to  follow,  confirming  the  direction  in  which  he  is 
tending.  A  good  report  from  his  keeper,  on  the  other  hand,  can  sig- 
nify a  new  resolution  of  the  will.  Thus  a  series  of  records  indicate, 
so  to  speak,  the  moral  and  intellectual  pulse  of  the  inmate.  What 
might  seem  a  very  slight  offense  outside  of  a  reformatory  institution 
is  not  so  within,  where  there  is  a  minimum  of  temptation  to  do  wrong 
and  a  maximum  of  continuous  restraint  to  do  right,  so  that  there  may 
be  a  gradual  education  in  the  formation  of  good  habits  which  are  the 
surest  safeguard  to  the  inmate  after  his  release. 

It  is  important  that  institutions  for  the  criminal  and  weakling  classes 
strive  to  gain  as  much  knowledge  as  possible  of  the  life  of  the  inmate 
previous  to  entering  the  institution,  to  keep  a  minute  record  of  his 
conduct  while  under  their  care,  and  especially  to  follow  his  career 
afterwards,  thus  imparting  useful  knowledge  to  society  at  large.  For 
if  there  is  to  be  any  advancement  in  the  treatment  of  the  weakling 
classes  by  educational  methods,  it  will  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  study 
of  the  inmates  themselves.  The  institutions  should  afford  facilities 
for  such  study,  the  very  object  of  which  is  to  furnish  a  trustworthy 
foundation  for  the  prevention  and  repression  of  delinquency  and  de- 
pendenc}7.  If  the  cure  is  possible  only  to  a  certain  degree,  the  approx- 
imate determination  of  this  degree  would  be  of  great  practical  impor- 
tance. 

But  if  it  be  objected  that,  after  all,  much  that  is  definite  and  trust- 
worthy may  not  be  gained,  the  cause  will  be  due  mainly  to  the  need 
of  more  exact  methods  of  investigation.  By  keeping  an  exact  record 
of  conduct  in  school,  workshop,  military  service,  and  cell  in  connection 
with  intellectual  standing,  and  giving  special  attention  to  those  indi- 
viduals whose  hereditary  tendencies  and  early  surroundings  are  best 
known,  a  thorough  investigation  of  physical,  mental,  moral,  and  indus- 
trial education  can  be  made.  A  minute  study  of  one  single  individual 
in  the  social  organism,  be  he  delinquent,  dependent,  or  not,  may  suggest 
a  method  for  the  beginning,  at  least,  of  a  scientific  sociological  educa- 
tion. Such  experience  might  be  especially  helpful  in  pointing  out  the 
best  methods  for  the  education  of  the  }^oung.  In  general,  the  main 
object  of  education  is  to  train  the  young  to  become  intelligent,  moral, 
and  self-supporting  citizens.  A  system  of  education  that  can  accom- 
plish this  is  a  practical  need  in  society  as  a  whole. 

But  education  in  the  sense  of  the  intellectual  only  is  not  sufficient; 
for,  though  the  children  of  the  weakling  classes  remain  six  hours  in 
school,  the  rest  of  their  time  is  spent  in  abodes  of  crime,  squalid  homes, 
or  vicious  idleness.  While  the  reform  schools  are  doing  much,  they  do 
not  reach,  however,  the  very  young  at  a  time  when  influences  for  evil  can 
leave  indelible  impressions.  If  these  unfortunate  children  are  to  be 
educated  morally  and  intellectually,  it  is  evident  that  this  can  not  be 
done  unless  they  are  removed  from  their  pernicious  surroundings. 
Early  prevention  is  the  most  effective  of  all  reforms.  Philanthropic 
efforts  are  being  directed-  to  this  end,  but  they  have  not  proved  suffi- 
cient for  their  support  is  not  always  assured,  and  not  infrequently 
they  are  of  a  sporadic  nature.  It  would  seem,  if  anything  permanent 


A    PLAN    FOB   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  97 

and  effective  is  to  be  accomplished,  the  State  must  assist.  While  the 
American  Government  is  not  a  paternal  one,  yet  there  is  a  limit  to  all 
forms  of  rules  here;  extremes  can  produce  evil.  Major  McClaughry, 
chief  of  the  Chicago  police,  and  an  expert  of  long  experience,  considers 
first  among  the  causes  of  crime  in  this  country  "  criminal  parentage, 
association,  and  neglect  of  children  by  their  parents."  It  is  to  be 
presumed  that  parents  will  properly  care  for  their  children,  treating 
them  kindly,  and  allowing  them  an  opportunity  for  at  least  an  ele- 
mentary education.  When  this  presumption  is  found  to  be  untrue,  the 
State  provides  for  the  appointment  of  a  suitable  person  to  act  as  guar- 
dian. But,  as  Mr.  Martindalea  says,  there  are  two  defects  in  this 
method:  "First,  there  is  no  officer  or  person  or  body  charged  specially 
with  the  duty  of  investigating  and  prosecuting  the  cases.  Secondly, 
as  such  children  have  no  estates  out  of  which  they  may  be  maintained 
and  educated,  the  court  can  find  no  guardian  who  will  undertake  the 
task  at  his  own  charge.  Experience  in  such  cases  shows  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  induce  neighbors  to  prosecute.  The  fear  of  revenge,  reluctance 
to  attend  court,  a  common  belief  that  a  child  belongs  to  a  parent,  who 
has  a  right  to  do  as  he  pleases  with  it,  and  sympathy  for  a  mother  de- 
prived of  her  child,  however  depraved  she  may  be,  are  all  prevailing 
motives  which  hinder  the  prosecution  of  such  cases." 

Prof.  Francis  Way  land,  of  the  Yale  law  school,  says  that  "it  may 
require  a  little  time  to  convince  the  community  that  a  father  has  no 
inalienable  right  to  brutalize  his  children,  and  to  conduct  under  his 
roof  a  normal  school  for  crime;  that  a  mother  has  no  inalienable  right 
to  turn  her  apartments  into  a  brothel.  A  haunt  of  vice  and  crime  is 
not  a  home;  and  we  do  not  advocate  institutional  life  save  as,  and 
always  as,  a  temporary  resting  place  under  humane  conditions,  as  to 
care  and  comfort,  until  a  permanent  home  can  be  provided." 

According  to  the  most  thorough  study  yet  madec  of  the  conditions 
of  the  weakling  classes,  20  per  cent  of  the  school  fees  can  not  be  col- 
lected; 10  per  cent  of  the  children  attending  are  in  want  of  food; 
some  come  without  breakfast  because  the  parents  do  not  get  it  for 
them;  as  a  little  boy  said,  "his  mother  got  drunk  and  could  not  get 
up  to  get  it."  Such  children  are  very  irregular  in  attendance,  which 
is  a  great  annoyance  to  a  teacher,  not  to  say  a  waste  of  public  money. 
Such  children  live  in  the  poorest  neighborhood;  they  have  no  regular 
meals;  fully  a  third  live  in  one  room  with  their  parents;  their  waking 
hours  are  divided  between  school  and  the  street;  saloons  are  some- 
times as  numerous  as  one  to  every  hundred  adults;  those  on  the  verge 
of  pauperism  patronize  them.  Yet  there  is  good  order  in  these  schools; 
the  street  urchins  are  trained  to  respond  to  right  rule,  affording  ground 
for  hope  as  to  their  future.  At  home  they  have  no  training;  they  need 
encouragement;  they  should  be  lifted  up  from  their  surroundings  and 
gain  a  taste  for  better  things.  The  difficulty  is  caused  more  frequently 
by  poverty  and  shiftlessness  at  home  than  by  neglect  and  vice;  yet  the 
latter  have  great  influence.  Compulsion  in  its  ordinary  form  is  prac- 
tically useless  in  making  such  children  regular  in  attendance  at  school. 
The  parents  are  characterized  by  improvidence,  want  of  purpose,  and 
no  regard  for  the  future  of  their  children;  as  soon  as  their  boy  is 
through  with  school  he  is  put  on  work  which  prepares  him  for  nothing, 

a "Child  Saving  Legislation,"  North  American  Review,  September,  1891. 

b  "Child  Saving  Legislation,"  reprint  from  National  Baptist,  December  3,  1891. 

c  Charles  Booth,  Labor  and  Life  of  the  People,  London. 

S.  Doc.  400 7 


98  A    PLAN    FOR    THE    STUDY    OF    MAN. 

and  thus  he  drifts  into  casual  employment,  trusts  to  chance  for  a  living, 
and  gradually  sinks.  The  poverty,  misery,  and  vice  of  the  next  gen- 
eration will  to  a  large  extent  come  from  the  slum  children.  Their  need 
is  education  in  habits  of  decency,  cleanliness,  self-respect,  the  rudi- 
ments of  civilization  and  domestic  life;  their  instruction  should  not  be 
too  abstract,  nor  technical  in  the  sense  of  fitting  them  for  competitive 
examinations,  clerkships,  or  college,  but  rather  for  the  workshop,  fac- 
tory, trades,  or  the  home. 


RELATION    OF    EDUCATION   TO    CRIME. 


It  is  a  common  suspicion  of  a  number  of  writers  that  education  has 
little  influence  in  decreasing  crime.  That  the  meaning  of  this  may  be 
clearly  understood  it  will  be  necessary  to  cite  a  few  opinions. 

Monsieur  Tardea  speaks  of  the  action  of  education  upon  insanity  and 
suicide,  which  increase  pari  passu,  but  he  refers  only  to  primary  edu- 
cation. He  remarks  that  the  restrictive  action  of  education  over  crime 
is  not  seen,  for  where  there  is  the  most  illiteracy  there  is  not  always 
the  most  crime.  In  Spain  the  proportion  of  illiteracy  to  the  population 
of  the  whole  country  is  two-thirds,  but  only  half  of  the  crime  comes 
from  this  number.  In  1883,  64:  of  condemned  assassins  knew  how  to 
read  or  write,  67  did  not;  there  is  one  condemned  for  theft  out  of  every 
6,453  with  common  education  and  8,283  with  no  education. b  In  the 
country,  where  there  is  less  education  than  in  the  city,  there  are  8 
prisoners  a  year  for  100,000  inhabitants,  but  16  prisoners  for  100,000 
inhabitants  in  the  cities.  Education  modifies  crime.  Thus  within  forty 
or  fifty  years  the  stealing  of  grain  has  diminished,  while  that  of  jewels 
has  increased;  also  the  proportion  of  crime  against  chastity  has  been 
very  large,  a  probable  effect  of  the  emancipation  and  refinement  of 
mind.  Therefore,  according  to  Monsieur  Tarde, ' '  the  quantity  of  crime 
en  bloc  is  not  at  all  attacked  by  the  diffusion  of  primary  education.  The 
remedy  should  be  to  proclaim  the  necessity  of  sacrifice,  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  motive  of  personal  interest,  and  the  opportunity  to 
elevate  by  sesthetical  education  of  the  highest  sort  and  to  spread 
professional  education  as  far  as  possible."  From  Tarde's  point  of 
view,  however,  primary  education  is  necessary,  as  it  is  a  condition  of 
the  higher  and  professional,  even  if  we  should  admit  that  per  se  it  is 
without  effect. 

According  to  Proal,c  instruction  is  not  sufficient  to  repress  crime; 
morality  is  not  an  attribute  of  thought  but  of  will;  spiritual  beliefs 
and  respect  of  God  are  necessary.  Instruction  does  not  do  away  with 
egotism.  Literaiy  and  philosophical  studies  have  much  more  moral 
influence  than  those  that  are  scientific. 

Victor  Hugo  liked  to  say  that  he  who  opens  a  school  closes  a  prison. 
But  Proal  says  many  schools  have  been  opened,  but  no  prisons  closed; 
criminality  has  not  diminished  while  education  has  increased.  Nicolayd 
insists  that  if  defective  instruction  is  the  cause  of  every  evil,  then  (1) 
there  should  be  less  morality  in  the  country  where  instruction  is  less 
cared  for  than  in  the  city;  (2)  the  sense  of  duty  should  be  more  feeble 
in  woman  than  in  man;  but  the  contrary  is  the  truth;  the  city  popu- 
lation, which  is  only  three-tenths  of  the  whole,  furnishes  almost  half 

aLa  Criminalite  compare,  Paris,  1890. 

b  Jimeno  Agius,  la  Criminalitad  en  Espana.     Revista  de  Espana,  1885. 

c  Le  Crime  et  la  peine,  Paris,  1892. 

d  Les  enfants  mat  eleves,  Paris,  1891. 


A    PLAN    FOR   THE    STUDY    OF   MAN.  99 

the  number  of  accused;  and  woman  commits  four  times  as  few  offenses 
and  six  times  as  few  crimes  as  man. 

Lombroso,a  by  comparing  500  criminals  with  normal  men,  finds  the 
following: 


^ 

Delin- 
quents. 

Normals. 

1.  Analphabets  

Per  cent. 
12 

Per  cent. 
6 

2  Elementary  instruction                      

95 

67 

3   Superior  instruction 

12 

27 

The  delinquents  are  inferior  to  the  normal  in  the  two  extremes,  but 
not  so  in  elementary  instruction.  But  there  is  great  variation,  accord- 
ing to  the  category  of  criminals;  25  per  cent  of  violators  and  assassins 
are  analphabets,  but  only  9  per  cent  of  criminals  against  property, 
and  less  than  1  per  cent  of  swindlers.  In  Austria  the  class  commit- 
ting the  least  crime  for  fourteen  years  consisted  of  those  engaged  in 
scientific  work,b  but  such  men  are  engaged  in  tedious  and  long  inves- 
tigations; they  are  critical,  and  their  emotional  nature  is  little  developed, 
so  that  they  see  more  clearly  the  folly  of  crime,  and  that  its  reaction 
generally  returns  with  great  se verity  upon  the  offender.  But  with  poets 
and  artists  crime  is  more  common,  since  the  emotional  nature  is  more 
prominent.  The  artists  are  tempted  by  professional  jealousy.  While 
sculptors  and  architects  manifest  little  tendency  to  crime,  painters  pro- 
duce their  quota,  owing  perhaps  to  their  abuse  of  alcohol.  But  crime 
is  more  frequent  in  the  liberal  professions.  In  Italy  and  France  6  per 
cent  had  received  a  superior  culture;  in  Bavaria  4  percent,  and  in  Aus- 
tria 3.6  per  cent.  Lombroso  adds  that  these  numbers  are  relatively 
greater  than  in  the  other  classes  of  society.  In  Italy  there  is  1  criminal 
for  every  345  professional  men  ("professionistes"),  1  for  every  278 
proprietors,  1  for  every  419  farmers,  and  1  for  every  428  employees.0 
For  those  who  exercise  a  profession  science  is  not  an  end  in  itself  but 
a  means,  thus  giving  less  force  to  conquer  the  passions.  The  physician 
can  easily  give  poison,  the  lawyer  commit  perjury,  and  the  teacher  sin 
against  chastity. 

But  there  are  other  authorities  who  take  a  somewhat  different  view. 
Biichner  (Force  et  matiere)  says  that  defect  of  intelligence,  want  of  edu- 
cation, and  poverty  are  the  three  great  factors  in  crime.  Beccaria  asserts 
that  the  evils  that  flow  from  knowledge  are  in  inverse  ratio  to  its  diffu- 
sion and  the  benefits  directly  proportional;  to  prevent  crime,  enlight- 
enment should  accompany  liberty.  A  bold  impostor,  who  is  never 
a  commonplace  man,  is  adored  by  the  ignorant  and  despised  by  the 
enlightened.  The  surest,  yet  most  difficult,  means  of  preventing  crime  is 
to  improve  education ;  inclining  the  }Touth  to  virtue  by  the  path  of  feeling, 
and  deterring  from  evil  by  the  force  of  necessity  and  disadvantage, 
and  not  by  mere  command,  which  is  uncertain.  D'Olivecrona1  says 
that  three-fourths  of  those  who  enter  prison  have  been  conducted  to 
crime  through  neglected  education;  the  method  of  treatment  there- 
fore should  be  the  development  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  faculties, 
and  self -reformation  should  be  taught  as  the  first  duty. 

aL'Homme  Criminal .     Paris,  1887. 

bMessedaglia,  Statistic-he  criminal!  dell'  Iinpero  Austriaco. 

"Oettingen,  Die  Moral -Statist!  k. 


100  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

In  America  the  opinion  of  those  of  large  experience  on  the  practical 
side  of  reformation  decidedly  favors  the  influence  of  education.  Z.  R. 
Brockway,  superintendent  of  the  Elmira  Reformatory  (an  institution 
generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  successful  in  the  world),  con- 
siders the  factors  for  the  reformation  of  criminals:  (1)  physical  reno- 
vation; (2)  mental  development  and  education;  (3)  the  creation  of 
improved  habitudes,  including  moral  habitudes.  Gardiner  Tuffs,  of 
the  Massachusetts  Reformatory,  says  that  criminals  are  more  weak 
than  wicked;  deficient  in  goodness  rather  than  excessive  in  wicked- 
ness; that  a  reformatory  is  an  educational  institution;  inmates  are 
trained  physically,  taught  letters  and  trades,  and  equipped  with  manual 
skill  and  industrial  knowledge.  Rev.  Fred.  H.  Wines  makes  labor, 
instruction,  and  religion  all  forms  of  education. 

SOME   CONCLUSIONS   AS   TO   CRIMINAL   MAN.  a 

The  following  statements  as  to  the  criminal  are  not  based  upon 
experimental  research  so  much  as  upon  the  experience  of  those  who 
have  studied  criminals  directly  or  who  have  had  practical  control  of 
large  numbers  in  prisons  or  reformatories: 

1.  The  prison  should  be  a  reformatory,  and  the  reformatory  a  school. 
The  principal  object  of  both  should  be  to  teach  good  mental,  moral, 
and  physical  habits.     Both  should  be  distinctly  educational. 

2.  It  is  detrimental  financially,  as  well  as  socially  and  morally,  to 
release  prisoners  when  there  is  probability  of  their  returning  to  crime, 
for  in  this  case  the  convict  is  much  less  expensive  than  the  ex-convict. 

3.  The  determinate  sentence  permits  many  prisoners  to  be  released 
who  are  morally  certain  to  return  to  crime.     The  indeterminate  sen- 
tence is  the  best  method  of  affording  the  prisoner  an  opportunity  to 
reform  without  exposing  society  to  unnecessary  dangers. 

4.  The  ground  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  criminal  is,  first  of  all, 
because  he  is  dangerous  to  society.     This  principle  avoids  the  uncer- 
tainty that  may  rest  upon  the  decision  as  to  the  degree  of  freedom  of 
will,  for  upon  this  last  principle  some  of  the  most  brutal  crimes  would 
receive  a  light  punishment.     If  a  tiger  is  in  the  street,  the  main  ques- 
tion is  not  the  degree  of  his  freedom  of  will  or  guilt.     Every  man  who 
is  dangerous  to  property  or  life,  whether  insane,  criminal,  or  feeble- 
minded, should  be  confined,  but  not  necessarily  punished. 

5.  The  publication  in  the  newspapers  of  criminal  detail^  and  photo- 
graphs is  a  positive  evil  to  society,  on  account  of  the  law  of  imitation, 
and  in  addition  it  makes  the  criminal  proud  of  his  record  and  develops 
the  morbid  curiosity  of  the  people,  and  it  is  especially  the  mentally 
and  morally  weak  who  are  affected. 

6.  It  is  admitted  by  some  of  the  most  intelligent  criminals,  and  by 
prison  officers  in  general,  that  the  criminal  is  a  fool,  for  he  is  opposing 
himself  to  the  best,  the  largest,  and  the  strongest  portion  of  society, 
and  is  almost  sure  to  fail. 

ALCOHOLISM. b 

Alcoholism  may  be  considered  briefly,  first,  in  its  general  bearings, 
and,  second,  as  a  form  of  insanity.  The  relation  between  alcoholism, 
crime,  pauperism,  and  charity  is  most  intimate.  For  example,  a  certain 

aFrom  "Criminology." 

bFor  consideration  of  "Alcoholic  Hypnotism,"  see  Hearing  before  House  Judiciary 
Committee  on  bill  to  establish  a  laboratory,  etc.  For  bibliography  of  alcoholism,  see 
also  same  Hearing. 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  101 

young  criminal,  who  tried  to  kill  an  aged  woman  without  provocation, 
said  that  when  he  was  6  years  of  age  his  father  used  to  return  home 
drunk,  striking  his  mother  and  throwing  sticks  of  wood  at  him.  He 
stood  it  for  a  while,  but  afterwards  left  home,  and  though  not  a  thief 
was  compelled  to  steal  for  a  living;  was  sent  to  a  juvenile  asylum,  and, 
after  leaving,  went  among  farmers  to  live  under  their  care,  being  kindly 
treated  by  a  very  few,  whipped,  and  otherwise,  roughly  treated  by 
many.  Remaining  a  month  or  so  with  different  farmers,  he  finally 
developed  into  a  tramp,  and  leaving  all  farmers  wandered  two  years, 
stealing,  eating,  and  sleeping  wherever  he  could.  Thus  alcohol  gave 
the  initiatory  to  thieving.  Charity  endeavored  to  counteract  these 
effects  (result  of  six  years  of  unfavorable  surroundings)  in  two  years, 
but  the  evil  forces  acquired  by  early  treatment  had  gained  too  strong 
a  foothold,  and  the  following  stages  were  tramping,  pauperism,  and 
crime.  Such  cases  are  typical,  and  almost  wholly  the  result  of  evil 
surroundings,  for  which  society  is  culpable  and  for  which  she  suffers 
dearly,  both  morally  and  financially.  The  alcoholic  may  be  a  good 
workman  when  sober,  but  from  irregularity  he  loses  his  position  and 
gradually  becomes  a  pauper.  A  sad  fact  in  connection  with  alcoholism 
is  that  often  the  kindest  and  most  genial  natures  are  for  this  very 
reason  ruined  through  the  unintentional  influence  of  friends,  for  they 
are  unable  to  resist  the  so-called  feeling  of  good  fellowship  when 
drinking  together.  From  the  ethical  point  of  view  it  is  questionable 
whether  one  has  the  right  to  take  the  chances  of  causing  another  to 
fall.  It  is  better  to  forego  the  physical,  intellectual,  or  social  pleasure 
of  indulging  in  any  luxury  or  nonnecessity  than  to  aid  in  the  physical, 
moral,  or  social  ruin  of  a  fellow-being. 

The  relation  of  ethics  to  all  these  forms  of  abnormal  humanity  is  as 
direct  as  it  is  diversified.  It  is  ethically  questionable  whether  it  is 
right  to  give  to  beggars,  for  by  so  doing  we  encourage  them  by  vir- 
tually paying  them  to  beg,  and  if  not  already  paupers  they  can  be 
made  so  by  a  mistaken  philanthropy.  It  is  a  common  saying  and  prac- 
tice of  Americans  traveling  in  Europe  to  give  ever}r  beggar  "  a  cent 
to  get  rid  of  him."  This,  of  course,  has  just  the  opposite  effect. 

All  these  abnormal  forms  of  humanity  are  different  degrees  of  evil 
or  wrong,  the  highest  of  which  is  crime.  They  are  all  links  of  one 
chain.  This  chain  is  that  which  we  denote  by  the  words  evil,  bad, 
unjust,  wrong,  etc. 

These  forms,  to  wit,  criminality,  alcoholism,  pauperism,  etc.,  may 
all  be  considered  under  the  head  of  "charitological."  Thus  the  dif- 
ferent institutions,  such  as  prisons,  insane  asylums,  inebriate  and 
orphan  asylums;  institutions  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb,  and  de- 
fectives; hospitals,  dispensaries,  relief  for  the  poor  in  any  form; 
church  missions,  and  different  forms  of  philanthropical  work  are,  of 
course,  charitable  in  their  purpose.  The  difference  between  these 
institutions  is  one  of  degree,  as  an  examination  of  the  inmates  would 
soon  show.  The  pauper  may  be  or  may  have  been  a  criminal,  or 
insane,  or  alcoholic,  or  the  criminal  may  be  or  may  have  been  a  pauper, 
or  insane,  or  alcoholic,  and  so  on. 

The  close  relation  of  alcoholism  to  insanity  is  shown  by  the  state- 
ment of  a  specialist  (Krafft-Ebing)  that  all  forms  of  insanity,  from 
melancholia  to  imbecility,  are  found  in  alcoholism.  It  is  artificial;  it 
begins  with  a  slight  maniacal  excitation;  thoughts  flow  lucidly;  the 
quiet  become  loquacious,  the  modest  bold;  there  is  need  of  muscular 


102  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

action;  the  emotions  are  manifest  in  laughing,  singing,  and  dancing. 
Now,  the  aesthetical  ideas  and  moral  impulses  are  lost  control  of;  the 
weak  side  of  the  individual  is  manifested,  his  secrets  revealed;  he  is 
dogmatic,  cruel,  cynical,  dangerous;  he  insists  that  he  is  not  drunk, 
just  as  the  insane  insists  on  his  sanity.  Then  his  mind  becomes  weak, 
his  consciousness  dim,  illusions  arise;  he  stammers,  staggers,  and,  like 
a  paratytic,  his  movements  are  uncertain. 

The  principal  character  of  these  mental  disturbances  consists  in  a 
moral  and  intellectual  weakness;  ideas  become  lax  as  to  honor  and 
decorum.  There  is  a  disregard  of  the  duties  of  family  and  citizenship. 
Irritability  is  a  concomitant;  the  slightest  thing  causes  suspicion  and 
anger  which  is  uncontrollable.  There  is  a  weakness  of  will  to  carry 
out  good  resolutions,  and  a  consciousness  of  this  leads  some  to  request 
to  be  placed  in  an  asylum,  for  they  are  morally  certain  in  advance  that 
they  can  not  resist  temptation.  Thus  one  has  been  known  to  have  his 
daughter  carry  his  wages  home,  as  he  could  not  pass  a  saloon  on  the 
way  without  going  in  if  he  had  any  money  with  him.  Now  it  is  a 
weakness  of  memory,  a  difficulty  in  the  chain  of  thought  and  a  weak 
perception  until  imbecility  is  reached. 

There  may  be  disturbances  in  brain  circulation,  causing  restless 
sleep,  anxious  dreams,  confusion,  dizziness,  headache.  Such  circula- 
tory disturbances  in  the  sense  organs  can  give  rise  to  hallucinations. 
There  is  a  trembling  in  hands,  face,  lips,  and  tongue.  In  short,  there 
is  a  gradual  mental  and  bodily  degeneration. 

From  the  medical  point  of  view,  a  cure  is  generally  doubtful,  for  in 
private  life  total  abstinence  is  impossible.  The  patient  must  be  placed 
in  a  hospital  for  inebriates,  where  total  abstinence  can  be  enforced. 
Patients  with  delirium  tremens  especially  need  the  most  careful  hos- 
pital treatment.  The  principal  directions  are  conservation  of  strength 
and  cerebral  quiet,  strong  unirritating  diet,  and  mild  laxatives,  etc. 
Such  in  general  is  considered  to  be  the  best  medical  treatment.  A  'cer- 
tain French  specialist  (Magnan)  sa}^s  that  a  dipsomaniac  is  insane  to 
drink;  but  the  drunkard  is  insane  after  he  has  drunk. 


TOTAL   ABSTINENCE. 


To  insist  on  total  abstinence  from  wine  in  France  and  beer  in  Ger- 
many is  like  objecting  to  the  use  of  coffee  and  tea  in  England  or 
America.  The  question  of  total  abstinence  is  manifestly  a  local  one; 
it  is  relative  to  the  country,  or  even  state,  city,  or  town.  To  insist 
that  drinking  is  either  right  or  wrong  in  the  absolute  sense  is  an 
attempt  to  make  the  relative  absolute,  which  is  a  contradiction.  There 
are  two  distinct  questions,  the  purely  ethical  and  the  purely  scientific; 
and  while  they  are  separated  for  convenience,  they  are  in  realit}^ 
together,  for  in  the  end  the  facts  decide  the  "ought."  The  practical 
ethical  question  seems  to  turn  on  this  point:  To  what  extent  the  use  of 
a  thing  should  be  prohibited  when  it  is  abused.  Many  ethical  difficul- 
ties are  not  between  good  and  evil,  but  between  two  evils,  as  to  which 
is  the  lesser.  Yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  total  abstinence  is  the 
safest  course. 

In  the  past,  wine  was  used  almost  wholly  by  the  well-to-do  classes, 
and  beer  was  of  such  a  nature  that  harm  was  out  of  the  question. 
Excessive  use  of  alcohol  first  began  with  the  art  of  distillation,  and 
with  the  obtaining  of  strong  concentrated  whisky  from  corn,  potatoes, 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  103 

and  the  like.  With  the  universalizing  of  the  use  of  whisky  a  series 
of  phenomena  have  appeared  which  are  designated  by  the  word 
"alcoholism."' 

The  climate  is  an  important  factor.  Drunkenness  is  more  frequent 
in  cold  than  in  warm  countries,  and  is  more  brutal  and  injurious  in  its 
effects  as  we  go  north.  Yet  this  is  not  always  true,  for  within  the  last 
ten  years  alcoholism  has  greatly  decreased  in  Sweden  and  increased 
in  southern  France  and  northern  Italy.  In  tropical  regions  it  is  at 
present  spreading  fast,  and  with  great  injury,  especially  in  newly  set- 
tled districts. 

SOCIAL   PATHOLOGY    AND   EDUCATION. 

The  term  pathology  includes  the  doctrine  of  disease,  its  nature  and 
results.  Social  pathology  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  general  term  and 
refers  to  any  abnormal  or  to  any  diseased  social  conditions.  It  includes 
pauperism,  crime,  insanity,  feeble-mindedness,  alcoholism,  and  in  gen- 
eral refers  to  all  classes  of  individuals  who,  by  mental,  moral,  or 
physical  defects,  come  to  be  dependent  upon  or  injurious  to  society  as 
a  whole.  Such  individuals  may  or  may  not  be  responsible  for  their  con- 
dition, for  it  may  be  due  to  the  individual  himself,  or  to  his  surround- 
ings, inherited  tendencies,  or  physical  diseases  over  which  he  has  had 
no  control. 

The  purpose  of  studying  social  pathology  is  not  so  much  ethical  as 
scientific — that  is,  it  does  not  undertake  to  pronounce  whether  the 
individual  or  society  is  to  blame  for  delinquency,  dependency,  or 
def  ectiveness,  but  it  seeks  to  analyze  the  causes  of  these  abnormal  or 
diseased  social  conditions,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  the  prevention  or  amelioration  of  patho-social  conditions. 
As  education  concerns  the  moral,  mental,  and  physical  development 
of  individuals  and  society,  it  bears  a  most  intimate  relation  to  those 
pathological  elements  that  tend  to  social  degeneration.  Education 
here  is  social  therapeutics — that  is,  a  method  of  amelioration  or  pre- 
vention. The  large  number  of  weaklings  in  will,  intellect,  and  body 
are  cases  included  under  this  educative  treatment.  As  there  is  no 
known  "  specific"  for  any-  of  the  social  diseases,  the  general  remedy 
is  to  implant  and  develop  in  individuals  (the  earlier  the  better)  such 
mental,  moral,  and  physical  habits  as  will  serve  to  prevent  or  lessen 
tendencies  to  delinquency,  dependency,  or  def  ectiveness.  Social  thera- 
peutics is  therefore  distinctively  educational. 

CRIME  AND  ITS  PUNISHMENT. 

IDEAS  ON  THE  REPRESSION  OF  CRIME,  BY  GAROFALO,   OF   THE  NEW 
ITALIAN  SCHOOL  OF  CRIMINOLOGY. 

The  problem  of  individual  moral  responsibility  is  perhaps  insoluble. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  penal  science  one  can  not  employ  the  prin- 
ciple of  free  will;  a  different  and  more  solid  basis  is  needed.  The 
generally  accepted  theory  is  in  contradiction  with  the  results  of  scien- 
tific researches.  There  should  be  no  discord  between  judicial  logic  and 
'social  interest.  From  the  moral  point  of  view,  individual  responsibility 
is  much  lessened  by  bad  example  from  infancy,  traditions  of  family  or 
race,  bad  habits  that  have  been  formed,  violence  of  passion,  tempera- 

aDie  Trunksucht  und  ihre  Abwehr,  von  Dr.  A.  Baer.     Wien  und  Leipzig,  1890. 


104  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OP  MAN. 

ment,  etc.  As  responsibility  lessens,  so  the  penalty  lessens,  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  if  you  can  prove  extreme  force  and  impul- 
sion to  crime.  Now,  there  is  scarcely  a  guilty  man,  who  has  not 
attenuating  circumstances.  There  is  not  a  crime  where  we  can  not 
discover  such  circumstances — that  is,  the  only  criminals  who  should 
be  inexcusable,  are  those  for  whom  one  has  not  sought  out  the  extenu- 
ating circumstances.  But  the  reply  is.  that  it  concerns  only  bad  ten- 
dencies and  the  free  will  of  man  can  triumph  over  them.  But  how  can 
one  measure  the  part  that  comes  from  bad  tendencies,  and  that  which 
comes  from  free  will?  The  progress  of  anthropology  shows  that  the 
most  culpable  have  almost  all  an  abnormal  psycho-physical  organiza- 
tion. If  penalty  depends  upon  the  principle  of  moral  responsibility 
we  should  acquit  some  of  the  most  ferocious  assassins,  as  soon  as  their 
extreme  natural  brutality  and  all-powerful  criminal  impulsions  are 
shown.  In  any  case  the  punishment  should  be  lessened  in  the  measure 
in  which  the  causes  of  the  bad  tendencies  become  evident.  The  more 
perverse  and  incorrigible  the  criminal  the  less  should  be  the  punish- 
ment. The  public  have  protested  against  the  verdicts  of  acquittal  by 
juries,  against  the  indulgence  of  magistrates,  but  such  acquittals  are 
the  triumph  of  logic;  only  the  triumph  is  at  the  expense  of  security 
and  social  morality.  There  is  no  way  to  avoid  this  unless  we  make  the 
penal  criterion  depend  upon  social  necessity  and  not  on  moral  respon- 
sibility of  the  individual.  Society  does  not  concern  itself  sufficiently 
with  crime,  neither  as' regards  the  victim,  nor  its  prevention.  The  fact 
that  in  the  midst  of  our  civilization  thousands  of  persons  are  slaugh- 
tered each  year,  where  one  does  not  directly  desire  money  or  life,  is 
significant,  and  it  is  all  the  more  hideous  as  life  becomes  more  pacific 
and  less  uncertain.  In  all  Europe  the  average  number  of  murders 
each  year  from  1881  to  1887  was  15,000.  In  the  United  States  the 
proportion  to  population  is  much  larger. 

But  what  does  society  do  to  prevent  these  evils?  Little  or  nothing. 
Crimes  have  been  tabulated,  because  a  scale  of  penalties  has  been  asked 
for,  where  for  each  delit  a  measure  of  suffering  is  designated  in  the 
form  of  detention  in  a  building,  where  the  prisoner,  for  a  certain  time, 
is  lodged,  fed,  and  clothed  at  the  expense  or  the  State.  After  this  time 
has  passed,  the  prisoner  becomes  a  free  citizen  and  is  said  to  have 
expiated  his  crimes,  or  to  have  paid  that  which  he  owes  society.  All 
this  is  nothing  but  rhetoric.  The  truth  is,  the  criminal  has  paid  noth- 
ing; it  is  the  State,  on  the  contrary,  which  has  paid  his  expenses, 
which  is  really  an  addition  to  the  damages  of  his  crime.  Nor  has  the 
criminal  improved  morally;  there  are  no  miracles  in  prison;  the  con- 
vict is  not  terrified;  our  penitentiary  system  is  not  severe;  on  the  other 
hand,  physical  pains  are  easily  forgotten.  He  leaves  prison  and  enters 
into  the  same  surroundings  in  which  he  was  before  his  condemnation, 
where  he  finds  the  same  temptations.  In  the  eyes  of  the  people,  the 
codes  and  the  judicial  power  have  the  appearance  of  protecting  the 
criminal  against  society,  rather  than  society  against  the  criminal. 

It  is  objected  that  fatalism  is  the  outcome  of  these  ideas.  This  is  a 
false  interpretation.  Experience  demonstrates  that  the  individual 
always  acts  in  the  same  manner  when  under  the  same  intellectual  and 
moral  conditions  and  the  same  exterior  circumstances.  It  is  foolish 
to  pretend  to  better  the  criminal  by  imprisonment  or  by  any  other 
mode  of  punishment,  if,  after  release,  he  is  allowed  to  return  to  nis 
former  surroundings.  But  it  is  not  impossible  to  aid  the  criminal  if 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  105 

he  is  put  into  new  conditions,  where  he  sees  the  necessity  of  honest 
work,  and  where  stealing  will  be  profitless  to  him.  Those,  are,  rather 
fatalists  who  say  that  crime  has  always  existed  and  will  exist,  and, 
therefore,  consider  it  as  one  of  the  evils  which  must  always  afflict 
society.  But,  it  is  said,  instead  of  punishing  we.  should  modify  the 
conditions  in  suppressing  the  causes  of  crime.  But  this  is  out  of  the 
question,  for  the  legislator  can  not  do  that,  which  is  solely  the  work 
of  time.  Why  should  this  strange  antinomy  exist  in  contemporary 
society:  That  the  majority,  who  have  the  sovereignty,  should  make  one 
exception,  and  that,  too,  where  it  is  against  the  smallest,  the  most  harm- 
ful, and  most  abject  minority,  that  of  the  criminals?  Why  should  the 
large  part  of  humanity  be  put  to  inconvenience  in  changing  the  condi- 
tions of  social  existence  in  the  exclusive  interest  of  a  mere  handful  of 
worthless  individuals?  Why,  on  the  contrary,  should  not  these  few 
who  are  unadapted  to  civilization  be  eliminated  ? 

The  criminal  anomaly  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  provocation 
increases.  Crime  is  a  legitimate  reaction  in  principle,  but  it  is  excess- 
ive, and  the  abnormality  consists  in  this  excess.  The  most  rational 
means  of  repression  should  consist  in  the  removal  of  the  delinquent 
from  the  locality  where  the  victim  or  his  family  lives,  and  in  prohibit- 
ing his  return  before  a  certain  time,  and  in  every  case  not  before  he 
has  paid  the  indemnity  due  to  the  victim  or  his  family,  A  more  diffi- 
cult problem  is  the  treatment  of  a  murderer,  whose  motive  was  venge- 
ance for  a  grievous  wrong,  or  insult  to,  his  family.  An  affront  is  real, 
which  is  considered  so  according  to  the  ideas  of  our  surroundings.  It 
is  of  little  importance  whether  this  environment  be  the  whole  world  or 
only  the  part  in  which  we  live. 

There  is  a  class  of  delinquents  who  stand  between  criminals  and 
normal  men,  because  their  offenses  are  less  serious  violations  of  the 
feelings  of  pity  and  are  more  of  the  nature  of  roughness,  or  indicate 
want  of  education  and  reserve.  Such  are  blows  in  a  fight,  where  there 
is  no  intention  of  murder;  here  there  is  little  development  of  the  alter- 
native sentiment;  here  belong  injuries  and  threats  having  no  particu- 
lar gravity.  Imprisonment  here  is  advantageous.  The  offender  should 
also  pay  a  fine  to  the  State,  and  also  another  for  the  benefit  of  the 
injured  party. 

Another  large  class  of  criminals  are  those  who  are  totally  or  par- 
tially deprived  of  the  sentiment  of  probity.  Aside  from  the  klepto- 
maniacs, pyromaniacs,  theepileptic  thievesand  incendiaries,  who  should 
be  placed  in  asylums  for  insane  criminals,  there  are  the  thieves,  incen- 
diaries, swindlers,  and  forgers  who  are  not  insane,  but  who  have  a  crimi- 
nal instinct  (according  to  Benedikt  it  may  be  a  moral  neurasthenia). 
These  and  the  habitual  delinquents  of  this  species,  whether  their 
improbity  be  congenital  or,  having  commenced  from  bad  education, 
example,  or  company,  has  become  instinctive  and  incorrigible,  should 
be  transported  into  some  distant  land,  where  the  population  is  small 
and  where  assiduous  work  is  the  absolute  condition  of  existence.  But 
if  the  neurasthenia  is  insurmountable,  a  further  elimination  into  a  sav- 
age country  is  necessary. 

But  it  is  objected  that  deportation  is  at  an  end,  because  civilization 
is  invading  the  whole  world.  France  has  New  Caledonia,  where  colo- 
nization has  scarely  commenced,  and  where  it  sends  its  (recidivists) 
habitual  criminals  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Australian  Govern- 
ment, which  is  more  concerned  as  to  a  future  commercial  competition 


106  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

than  the  puerile  fear  of  criminals  fleeing  New  Caledonia  and  infesting 
Australia.  Russia  possesses  immense  Siberian  regions,  where  the 
population  is  excessively  sparse.  The  Government  of  English  India 
continues  to  send  criminals  to  the  islands  of  Andamans. 

But,  it  is  said,  space  will  be  wanting  in  the  future,  the  mines  will  be 
exhausted,  etc.  Is  it  necessary  to  cease  to  care  for  the  present  world 
on  account  of  a  vague  probability?  After  the  large  islands  of  Poly- 
nesia, Australia,  and  Malaisia  there  will  remain  the  innumerable  Mad- 
reporic  groups  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  for  the  most  part  are 
deserted.  When  there  is  no  more  room  here  there  will  alwa}^s  be  the 
Sahara  and  the  center  of  Africa.  For  a  few  centuries,  at  least,  there 
will  not  be  wanting  space  where  civilized  nations  can  pour  out  their 
most  impure  elements. 

But  there  is  without  doubt  the  economical  side  to  solve.  There  are 
the  expenses  of  transportation,  the  supervision,  etc.  We  must  con- 
sider, however,  the  expenses  of  our  prisons  at  present,  and  that  habit- 
ual criminality,  which  represents  about  half  of  the  total  of  crimes, 
will  be  suppressed;  also  the  criminal  will  be  obliged  to  gain  his  living 
by  agricultural  work  which  will  not  fail.  In  prisons  it  is  very  difficult 
to  employ  convicts  at  useful  labor. 

In  this  second  subclass  of  criminals  whose  improbity  is  congenital, 
or  has  become  instinctive  by  habit,  and  who  at  the  same  time  are,  by 
the  gravity  or  number  of  tneir  crimes,  a  pressing  danger  to  society, 
it  is  necessary  to  follow  another  plan,  that  of  those  whose  depravity 
is  not  complete  and  who  have  not  yet  become  recidivists  nor  extremely 
dangerous.  This  is  a  very  numerous  class.  The  individual  whose 
sentiment  of  probity  is  not  very  profound  becomes  guilty  on  account 
of  bad  example  through  imitation;  often  a  first  fault  involves  another. 
For  there  are  very  humble  social  positions  where  a  good  reputation 
is  a  necessity;  a  domestic  or  workman  who  has  been  found  stealing 
will  not  easily  find  another  place;  a  new  career  then  opens  to  him,  that 
of  a  malefactor.  He  will  enter  it  without  flinching,  for  his  greatest 
safeguard  is  now  broken;  he  has  nothing  more  to  fear  since  his  impro- 
bity has  been  discovered. 

The  only  possible  remedy  here  would  be  a  change  of  country,  habits, 
kind  of  work,  a  new  existence  to  commence.  Now,  in  order  that  the 
punishment  inflicted  by  the  State  may  aid  matters  rather  than  make 
them  worse,  as  at  present,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  different  cases 
according  to  the  causes  which  have  determinqd  the  crime. 

France,  since  1850,  has  had  agricultural  colonies  for  young  men 
acquitted  on  account  of  lack  of  discernment,  and  for  minors  condemned 
to  more  than  six  months  or  less  than  two  years  of  imprisonment.  The 
length  of  time  varies  from  three  to  six  years;  agricultural  work  pre- 
dominates. Public  money  has  never  been  spent  more  usefully,  for  the 
state  returns  93  out  of  every  100  who  are  adaptable  to  society.  Other- 
wise the  larger  part  of  these  would  inhabit  the  prisons  for  the  rest  of 
their  lives  at  the  expense  of  the  nation.  When  the  time  arrives  the 
director  of  the  colony  places  the  young  man  with  some  farmer  or  has 
him  enter  the  navy  or  army.  The  individual  thus  finds  himself  away 
from  his  former  environment.  Colonies  of  this  kind  can  be  established 
in  civilized  countries  without  any  danger,  for  the  supervision  of  the 
young  men  is  not  difficult.  Whatever  difficulties  there  are,  they  are  not 
to  be  compared  to  agricultural  colonies  where  the  men  are  condemned 
to  hard  labor,  as  has  been  attempted  in  Italy,  and  is  a  grave  error. 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  107 

Among-  many  passing  beyond  adolescence  there  is  a  large  number  of 
novices  at  theft  who  have  been  brought  to  crime  by  idleness,  ignorance 
of  a  trade,  abandonment,  or  spirit  of  vagabondage.  Such  cases  should 
be  enrolled  in  a  company  of.  workers  for  the  State,  with  a  nominal 
salary,  not  inferior  to  the  ordinary,  but  which  will  be  retained  for  the 
payment  of  a  fine  to  the  State  and  for  the  damage  to  the  injured  party. 
Here  there  will  be  the  choice  between  working  and  starving.  The 
workman  should  not  be  released  after  he  has  fulfilled  his  obligations 
until  he  has  found  employment;  then  he  should  furnish  security, 
which  will  be  confiscated  in  case  of  another  similar  crime,  and  will  not 
be  rendered  to  him  until  after  a  number  of  years  of  good  conduct.  In 
case  of  the  recidive  perpetual  relegations  should  be  made  directly;  all 
other  means  are  inutile,  because  there  is  a  proof  of  a  persistent  indi- 
vidual cause — aversion  to  work.  The  same  treatment  is  adapted  to 
swindlers  and  forgers. 

But  sometimes  the  delinquent  is  not  an  idler  or  vagabond;  he  has  a 
trade  by  which  he  lives,  he  may  be  quite  well  to  do,  yet  by  a  strange 
aberration  he  commits  a  theft,  or  by  pure  cupidity  he  takes  money 
placed  in  his  care,  or  he  becomes  suddenly  a  swindler  or  forger  or 
bankrupt.  But  there  is  no  proof  of  improbity  on  this  account;  as 
there  exists  no  constant  motive  to  determine  a  new  crime,  it  is  possible 
that  the  delinquent  will  not  fall  again,  if  his  cupidity  has  been  com- 
pletely disappointed,  so  that  he  sees  that  honest  conduct  is  much  better 
for  his  own  interests.  For  this  there  is  nothing  better  than  forced 
payment  of  the  fine  and  damage  to  the  injured  party.  This  would  pro- 
duce other  advantages  for  society.  An  unfaithful  cashier  or  fraudulent 
bankrupt  would  know  that  if  once  discovered  he  could  not  enjoy  the 
smallest  part  of  the  money  stolen,  but  would  have  to  return  all,  every 
penny ;  or  otherwise  he  would  have  to  work  an  indefinite  time  for  him 
whom  he  had  robbed.  This  is  a  forcible  way  of  causing  the  sudden 
reappearance  of  the  sum  that  might  be  thought  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
consorts.  This  is  much  more  useful  than  imprisonment  for  a  fixed 
time,  which  is  no  profit  to  anyone,  and  only  adds  to  the  damage  from 
the  crime  the  expense  of  supporting  the  prisoner.  If  the  money  has 
really  been  spent,  the  offender  must  work  without  respite  for  repay- 
ment of  the  injured  party.  If  he  will  not  do  it  voluntarily,  he  will  be 
obliged  to  do  it  in  a  company  of  works  for  the  State,  where  there  is  no 
bread  without  labor.  If,  in  spite  of  his  efforts,  he  is  unable  to  gain  a 
sufficient  sum,  after  a  certain  number  of  years,  according  to  his  age  or 
his  good  will,  this  constraint  can  be  fixed  to  ten  or  fifteen  years;  but 
this  term  should  be  lengthened  as  soon  as  a  want  of  assiduity  is  noticed. 
If  the  delinquent  fulfills  all  his  obligations,  he  is  to  be  released,  and 
deprived  only  of  his  political  rights  with  interdiction  of  any  public 
function,  or  of  exercising  commerce,  if  it  is  a  case  of  a  bankrupt. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  temporary  detention  for  a  fixed  time  in  ad- 
vance (the  typical  penalty  of  our  present  legislation)  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared in  the  system  that  has  just  been  outlined.  This  new  system 
is  an  attempt  to  give  to  penalties  a  social  utility,  and  this  is  done  in 
the  most  logical  manner,  by  the  principle  of  rational  reaction  against 
crime.  This  consists  sometimes  in  absolute  elimination  by  the  death 
penalty,  or  relative  elimination  by  seclusion  in  an  asylum,  or  depor- 
tation with  abandonment,  or  perpetual  relegation,  or  indefinite  relega- 
tion, or  simple  damages  with  payment  of  a  fine,  or  by  public  labor. 

There  are  but  few  kinds  of  crime  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  hinder 


108  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

the  delinquent  physically  as  the  sole  means  of  avoiding  its  repetition. 
Such  is,  for  example,  the  counterfeiting  of  money.  Here  imprisonment 
is  necessary  until  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  have  no  longer 
associates.  Imprisonment  in  advance  applies  to  these  cases,  not  in  the 
code  of  criminality,  in  which  there  is  a  special  immorality,  incompat- 
ible with  those  attributive  sentiments  which  are  the  basis  of  present 
morality.  The  immorality  of  these  actions  consists  principally  in  a 
revolt  against  authority,  or  in  disobedience  of  the  law.  If  this  polit- 
ical element  is  predominant,  the  penalty  should  be  of  the  nature  capa- 
ble of  assuring  support  of  the  law.  This  does  not  pertain  to  real 
malefactors,  but  to  revolts.  Here  is  the  limit  where  the  reason  of  the 
State  replaces  the  natural  laws  of  social  organization,  and  where  con- 
siderations as  to  crime  cease. 

To  fight  against  an  enemy  with  success,  it  is  necessary  to  know  him 
beforehand.  Now  this  enemy,  the  criminal,  the  jurists  do  not  know. 
In  order  to  know  him,  one  must  have  observed  him  for  a  long  time  in 
prison.  It  is  to  those  who  have  thus  studied  that  the  future  will  reserve 
the  mission  of  transforming  penal  science  into  harmon}^  with  social 
necessities. 

PURE    MURDER. a 

A  classical  case  of  pure  murder  is  where  a  fellow-prisoner  killed  his 
comrade  while  snoring  too  loud.  The  case  of  least  provocation  that 
we  have  seen  was  that  of  a  man  who  pierced  the  abdomen  of  an  inti- 
mate friend  with  a  very  small,  slender,  knife  blade.  His  friend,  rais- 
ing up  his  vest,  said:  "Why,  you  stabbed  me,  John;  there  is  blood 
there."  With  that  John  made  three  or  four  more  punctures,  from  the 
effects  of  which  the  man  died.  As  they  had  no  quarrel  at  all,  it  would 
seem  that  the  murderer  merely  had  a  curiosity  to  stick  the  knife  into 
something. 

Another  case  is  that  of  a  life  prisoner,  who  had  been  in  a  dungeon 
for  years.  He  had  killed  several  men,  and  would  not  hesitate  to  take 
the  life  of  prison  officers,  all  of  whom  were  afraid  of  him.  He  had 
only  one  friend  in  the  world,  and  that  was  the  "  doctor."  It  was  per- 
fectly safe  to  go  into  his  cell  when  the  doctor  introduced  one  as  his 
friend.  At  the  time  of  the  visit  he  happened  to  see  a  certain  prison 
officer,  and  a  volume  of  epithets  followed.  Then  he  pointed  out  the 
five  or  six  bullet  wounds  that  he  had  received  in  a  row  with  the  offi- 
cers. "Rascals  and  cowards,"  he  growled,  grinding  his  teeth.  He 
said:  "I  came  from  Ireland,  where  I  had  also  killed  some  men,  but  in 
America  punishment  is  a  great  deal  harder.  I  was  going  to  a  ball  with 
'me'  girl  one  evening,  and  a  policeman  tried  to  arrest  me;  he  insulted 
'me'  girl  and  I  knocked  him  'inside  out'  (killed  him),  but  I  did  not 
run  away,  I  went  to  the  ball."  During  his  trial,  being  very  easily 
angered,  he  nearly  cleared  the  court-house,  and  was  almost  bled  to 
death  by  wounds  from  handcuffs,  etc.,  used  to  subdue  him.  In  the 
course  of  conversation  he  said:  "Doctor,  I  would  have  killed  a  man 
in  the  hospital  had  he  not  been  under  your  charge." 

This  man  was  honest  in  character,  and  was  chaste  toward  women. 
He  would  give  nis  life  up  for  the  "doctor."  Anyone  he  liked  he 
would  do  anything  for;  anyone  he  hated  he  would  kill  without  the 

•  For  another  case  especially  studied,  see  Hearing  before  House  Committee  on 
Judiciary  on  bill  (H.  R.  14798)  to  establish  a  laboratory  for  the  Btudy  of  the  crimi- 
nal, pauper,  and  defective  classes. 


A  PLAN  FOB  THE  STLDY  OF  MAN.  109 

least  repulsion.  There  was  something  heroic  in  him  notwithstanding 
his  ferocity. 

Man  in  the  savage  state  was  forced  to  look  upon  the  stranger  as  an 
enemy,  which  generally  proved  to  be  true.  But  the  little  child  also 
seems  to  show  traces  of  this  murderous  tendency.  For  it  would  hesi- 
tate none  the  less  to  bite  its  nurse  or  strike  its  mother  did  these  acts 
cause  their  death.  Fortunately  this  propensity  is  generally  corrected, 
but  should  it  persist,  and  surroundings  be  favorable  for  its  growth, 
such  a  child  could  develop  into  a  murderer. 

As  an  illustration  we  shall  study  the  case  of  "A,"  who  was  12  or  13 
years  old  when  he  committed  the  act  that  made  him  known. 

That  "A"  may  speak  for  himself,  we  give  verbatim  his  autobiog- 
raphy. 

AUTOBIOGRAPHY   OF    "A." 

According  to  iny  life  I  will  write  from  about  when  I  was  7  or  8.  My  parents 
treated  me  right  till  I  was  11  years  old.  I  went  to  school  right  along  for  about  two 
months,  and  then  I  ran  away  from  school.  So  then  my  parents  sent  me  to  the 

Asylum.  There  my  course  was  not  very  well.  I  had  a  great  many  black 

marks  against  me  there.  I  stayed  for  two  years  two  weeks  and  two  months.  Then  I 
was  sent  back  home,  and  behaved  myself  for  one  month.  Then  again  I  did  not  go 
to  school  as  usual;  so  my  parents  sent  me  back  to  the  institution.  There  I  stayed  a 
long  time.  Then  I  was  called  up  by  the  superintendent  of  the  place  and  asked  if  I 
would  like  to  live  in  the  country.  I  said  I  would,  so  he  said  he  would  let  me  go. 

My  first  wrong  deed  I  done  was  to  steal  an  apple  from  an  Italian's  stand.  I  went 
home  with  the  apple,  and  my  mother  asked  me  where  I  got  it.  I  said  I  bought  it 
for  1  cent.  She  asked  me  where  I  got  my  money;  I  said  from  my  saving's  bank. 
She  asked  how  I  got  the  money  from  the  bank. 

I  hung  my  head  and  did  not  want  to  tell  then.  She  asked  me  what  was  the  mat- 
ter; I  said  nothing.  She  said  why  do  you  hang  your  head  so;  I  said  for  nothing. 

Then  I  went  from  home  and  was  lost.  When  they  found  me  they  took  me  back 
home.  When  I  got  inside  the  house  my  father  asked  me  where  I  was;  I  would  not 
tell  him,  so  he  said  to  me  if  I  did  not  tell  he  would  thrash  me,  and  still  I  would  not 
tell,  so  he  went  and  got  the  bootjack  and  said,  "Are  you  going  to  tell?"  But  I 
would  not;  and  so  that  night  I  got  a  good  sound  thrashing. 

I  will  now  describe  my  parents  in  regard  to  their  doings.  Just  before  I  left 
home  my  mother,  brothers,  and  sisters  were  good  to  me,  and  I  will  mention  them 
more  than  my  father.  He  used  to  drink  a  great  deal.  Every  night  when  he  came 
home  drunk  we  had  to  get  out  of  his  way,  or  something  would  go  sailing  through 
the  room.  But  one  night  I  did  not  get  out  of  his  way;  I  was  not  a-going  to,  either, 
for  I  just  was  a-going  to  see  what  he  was  a-going  to  do.  He  came  in  the  door  and  I 
was  sitting  by  the  window.  He  just  walked  right  over  to  where  I  was  and  jerked  a 
hole  right  through  my  ear.  I  commenced  to  cry.  He  asked  me  what  was  the  mat- 
ter. As  soon  as  he  saw  my  bloody  ear  he  got  a  piece  of  black  ' '  sucking ' '  plaster  and 
put  it  on  the  back  of  my  ear.  My  father  was  the  cause  of  my  mother's  death.  He 
came  home  drunk  one  night,  and  my  mother  was  sitting  in  the  parlor  sewing  at  some 
one  of  the  boys'  pants;  he  picked  up  a  flatiron  and  hurled  it  at  my  mother;  it  did 
not  strike  her;  she  looked  about  and  could  not  tell  where  it  came  from.  She  then 
saw  my  father  pick  up  a  stove  poker.  He  walked  up  to  my  mother  and  hit  her  with 
it;  left  a  severe  wound,  and  she  was  in  bed  about  one  month  before  she  died.  My 
father  would  drink  continuously,  but  there  was  no  more  trouble  in  the  house. 

I  was  then  sent  from  home  to  the Asylum.  From  there  I  went  to , 

and  received  a  good  education  in  schooling.  I  went  to  school  in  summer  and  stayed 
at  the  farm  in  winter.  I  am  going  to  try  to  be  a  better  boy  hereafter. 

When  I  was  in I  did  a  great  many  things  that  were  wrong.  The  man  I 

was  with  used  to  send  me  to  the  field  to  work,  and  I  used  to  lay  down  in  the  field 
and  go  to  sleep.  I  used  to  sleep  by  the  hour,  and  sometimes  half  a  day,  if  he  did 
not  come  to  see  if  I  was  working.  If  I  was  not,  he  would  pick  up  a  cornstalk  and 
whip  me  about  the  field.  He  would  set  me  at  pulling  weeds  at  an  early  hour.  I 
would  pull  for  two  or  three  hours  steady  and  then  lie  down.  If  I  did  not  get  enough 
I  would  lie  down  all  day,  if  he  would  let  me. 

I  was  with ,  of County, ,  and  stayed  for  one  month.  I  used 

to  go  and  tease  the  sheep  he  had ;  then  I  would  chase  the  hogs  about  the  pen  and  the 
chickens  about  the  barnyard.  I  used  to  steal  eggs  of  all  kinds.  When  he  told  me 


110  A  PLAK  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

to  go  up  to  the  "old  home"  out  in  the  field  and  feed  the  cows,  I  would  not  go;  I 
would  lie  down  and  go  to  sleep.  I  left  that  place  because  the  man  did  not  like  me 
nor  I  him. 

The  next  place  I  went  to  was County, .     The  man's  name  was . 

He  had  a  very  nice  farm,  indeed.  I  liked  him  very  much.  He  treated  me  as  he 
would  one  of  his  owrn  boys,  and  I  treated  him  as  any  ordinary  white  person  should. 
There  was  one  fault  between  us,  and  that  was  I  would  not  do  the  work  decent;  and 
that  was  the  reason  I  left  him  although  he  was  a  very  nice  man.  I  liked  him  and 
he  did  me. 

The  next  place  was  in  -     — .     I  stayed  with  Mr.  for  two  months.     I 

liked  it  first  rate.  I  used  to  run  the  windmill  at  his  place  every  day,  pumping  a  big 
tank  full  of  water.  The  worst  of  it  was  I  did  not  like  to  watch  it.  I  had  to  herd 
from  15  to  20  head  of  cows  and  drive  them;  had  to  fetch  them  from  the  pasture  every 
morning  and  night.  I  had  to  tend  12  horses,  feed  and  water  them  every  morning, 
noon,  and  night. 

The  next  place  I  went  was  in County.     There  I  stayed  with  Mr. for 

three  months  steady.  I  did  a  great  deal  of  work  there.  I  had  to  plow,  sow,  reap, 
harrow,  drag,  had  to  help  gather  the  harvest  in,  going  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  before 
we  reached  the  field.  There  was  where  I  did  so  many  things  in  killing  his  animals. 
As  I  told  you  what  I  killed  I  need  not  mention  it  here.  I  will  try  to  behave  myself 
hereafter.  Then  I  went  to  —  — ,  where  I  took  a  place  with  —  — ,  staying  for  three 
good  solid  months.  I  did  not  like  his  treatment.  In  the  winter  time  he  would  not 
let  me  have  mittens  on  my  hands;  he  would  set  me  to  clean  the  horse  and  cow  stables 
when  it  was  bitter  cold,  without  anything  on  my  hands  to  keep  them  warm  or  on 
my  feet.  Sometimes  he  would  come  into  the  barn  and  see  me  standing  stiil,  not 
working;  he  would  ask  me  what  I  was  doing;  I  would  say,  "Trying  to  warm  my 
hands;"  then  he  would  say,  "  You  clean  out  these  stables  or  I'll  thrash  you." 

Then  he  would  come  again  and  catch  me  not  working;  then  he  would  get  the  tugs 
or  driving-rein  and  thrash  me,  and  besides  he  would  make  me  '  'jerk ' '  a  wagon  ' '  bed ' ' 
of  corn  without  anything  on  my  hands.  I  would  have  to  unload  it  and  pick  another 
load  before  I  got  anything  to  eat;  sometimes  three  loads  before  and  after  dinner. 
If  I  did  not  do  my  share  of  work  he  would  say,  "You  can't  have  anything  to  eat." 
He  was  a  hard  man  with  me  when  I  hit  his  wife  with  my  fist  for  plaguing  me.  If 
she  had  not  been  teasing  me,  I  would  not  have  struck  her.  I  said  to  his  wife, 
"Now,  just  stop  your  fooling  or  else  there  will  be  trouble,"  but  she  would  not;  so  I 
struck  her  a  good  blow  in  the  face,  and  she  did  stop;  but  she  told  her  husband  and 
that  night  I  got  a  good  thrashing. 

The  next  place  I  went  to  was  at ,  where  I  stayed  with five  months, 

and  liked  it  first  rate.  I  used  to  do  all  the  chores  about  the  barn,  and  help  in  the 
housework  along  with  the  other  work.  I  don't  remember  doing  anything  wrong 
there.  His  wife  was  a  good  lady  and  I  liked  her  very  much  indeed;  she  never  gave 
me  much  trouble  at  all. 

The  next  place  I  went  was  —  — .  There  I  hired  out  to  a  man  that  kept  a  livery 
stable.  I  did  first-rate  work  and  got  my  board  and  clothes.  When  I  was  there 
a  week  I  got  a  new  suit  of  clothes  and  had  a  splendid  time  of  it. 

The  next  place  I  went  was .    There  I  stayed  for  a  few  days  and  caught  a ' '  blind 

baggage ' '  and  rode  on  it  till  1  reached  a  station  about  10  miles  south  of .     Then 

I  got  on  a  freight  train  and  held  it  right  through  to  Chicago.  I  stayed  there  about 
a  week.  I  used  to  help  to  load  steamships  for  pretty  near  six  days.  Finally  I  stole  a 
ride  on  a  boat  going  from  Chicago  to  Milwaukee.  There  I  came  nearly  getting 
arrested  for  stealing  a  ride  on  the  boat.  Then  the  mate  said,  "Get  off  this  boat." 
I  said,  "No,  I  won't;  not  for  such  a  thing  as  you  or  anyone  like  you;"  so  he  went 
and  got  a  policeman.  The  policeman  said,  "I  will  give  you  till  1  o'clock  to  get  out 
of  town."  But  I  was  rowing  in  one  of  the  boats  on  the  side  of  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  for  at  least  two  hours  after  the  policeman  told  me  to  get  out  of  town.  I 
swore  at  the  mate  and  told  him  I  would  break  his  face  for  him  if  I  caught  him  on 
land.  He  dare  not  set  foot  off  the  boat  for  fear  of  getting  hurt.  I  went  back  to 
Chicago  and  there  stayed  for  three  days  more.  Then  I  got  on  another  boat  and 
went  to  Buffalo  about  three  days;  then  took  a  freight  train,  and  slept  on  a  load  of 
sheep  for  one  night;  when  I  got  out  of  the  car  I  was  about  50  miles  from  Buffalo 
on  one  of  the  roads  running  through  Pennsylvania.  I  had  to  work  my  way 
part  of  the  time,  and  the  conductor  gave  me  a  ride  in  .his  caboose  for  over  100 
miles,  I  had  to  keep  out  of  sight  for  fear;  if  I  was  caught  I  might  be  arrested,  and 
the  conductor  might  have  been  discharged.  I  walked  for  three  days,  stopping  only 
for  resting  and  eating;  then  I  caught  a  freight  train,  going  very  slow,  about  a  half  a 
mile  from  Scranton,  and  riding  from  there  to  Jersey  City,  I  walked  to  Hoboken, 
taking  a  boat  across  the  river,  1  walked  down  to  Grand  street,  and  started  to  find 
my  folks,  but  after  inquiring  for  them  I  stayed  in  New  York  City  two  hours;  then 
taking  a  boat  I  went  across  the  river  to  Brooklyn.  There  I  began  my  search  with  a 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  Ill 

gang  of  Brooklyn  boys  to  help  me  hunt  up  my  parents.  We  went  to  a  large  drug 
store  and  askea  to  take  the  Directory  to  find  a  man's  name  and  place  where  he  lived. 
We  found  a  good  many  with  the  same  name  as  my  father.  We  went  to  these  places, 
but  did  not  find  the  right  one;  but  still  we  looked,  but  no  traces  could  be  found; 
but  I  remember  of  one  in  East  Brooklyn,  but  I  did  not  have  time  to  go  over  there, 
because  I  was  taken  by  a  minister  to  the  — - —  Home.  I  stayed  there  one  month. 
I  did  not  work  in  the  house.  The  work  I  did  was  cutting  wood  and  helping  in  the 
engine  room.  I  got  my  dinner  at  1  p.  m.  sharp,  sometimeanot  till  1.30  p.  m.  I  liked 

it  first  rate  there;  it  was  a  very  good  place.  Then  I  went  to ,  where  Mr. 

came  after  me.  I  went  to  his  place  on  Christinas  noon,  where  I  got  a  good  meal. 
The  next  morning,  when  I  got  up,  I  went  out  to  the  barn  and  did  all  the  chores  the 
best  I  knew  how;  then  went  to  the  house  and  did  what  was  needed  there;  then  I 
went  into  the  yard  and  fed  the  chickens  and  turkeys.  Then  came  noon;  I  went 
out  and  fed  and  watered  the  horses  and  cattle;  then  rumaged  around  a  little,  and 
doing  something  once  in  a  while.  When  I  was  not  doing  anything  I  would 
think  of  something  to  do.  If  I  could  not  think  of  something  I  would  go  in  the 
house  and  read.  I  stayed  at  the  house  in  summer  and  went  to  school  in  winter. 
We  used  to  have  fine  times;  we  had  lots  of  fine  coasting  and  sliding  down  a  hill 
half  a  mile  long.  I  would  ride  down  on  a  sled.  But  one  day  was  a  sad  one  for 
one  of  the  boys  in  the  schoolhouse.  I  stole  his  sled  and  ran  off  to  town  with 
it;  I  had  a  lot  of  fun  with  it,  then  gave  it  away,  and  had  some  fun  with  the  boy 

I  gave  the  sled  to;  then  went  down  to  the railroad  depot.  I  had  a  talk 

with  Mr. ,  conductor  of  the  road,  and  then  with  the  man  in  the  station  or 

the  telegraph  operator;  then  went  out  of  the  station  and  stole  another  sled  for  to 
pay  the  boy  for  the  sled  I  stole  of  him.  I  then  went  back  with  the  sled  I  stole  to 
town,  and  gave  it  to  him.  The  boy's  father  came  up  to  the  barn  where  I  was  doing 
chores;  he  said  to  me,  "Where  is  "the  sled  you  stole  from  my  boy."  I  told  him  I 
left  it  in  town;  then  he  said,  "You  get  the  sled  or  you  will  pay  for  it;  "  I  said  all 
right.  Then  he  asked  me  when  I  was  going  to  get  it;  I  said  this  afternoon,  if  I 
could  not  get  the  sled,  I  would  get  a  new  one.  So  I  started  for  town  right  after 
dinner,  and  got  in  town  by  2  o'clock;  there  I  stayed  pretty  late;  as  I  was  going  up 
the  hill  with  the  sled  in  my  arms  I  went  down  the  back  way  through  the  back  road. 
J  thought  'I  would  not  be  heard  or  seen,  but  I  was  mistaken.  As  I  approached  the 
barnyard  I  saw  the  father  of  the  boy  1  stole  the  sled  from  and  his  hired  hands. 
Then  I  went  up  to  the  house  and  went  to  bed  in  the  hack  under  the  wagon  shed. 

The  next  morning  old came  in  the  shed,  and  gave  me  a  poke  with  a  stick  he 

[the  man  he  worked  for]  always  carried  when  he  went  to  milk  the  cows.  When  I 
woke  up  I  made  a  groan  and  then  turned  out.  I  did  the  chores,  then  went  into  the 
house  and  got  some  breakfast,  I  went  by  the  stove  and  got  warm  a  little,  then  went 
upstairs  and  dressed  myself  in  my  best  suit  of  clothes,  then  went  downstairs  and  bid 
them  good-bye.  Then  I  started  on  my  journey  for  New  York.  I  walked  from 
—  to ,  a  distance  of  25  miles. 

As  I  was  going  along  the  road  1  met  two  teams  coming  along  the  road.  After  we 
passed  the  teams  I  started  snowballing  a  lady  of  about  65  or  70  years  old;  then  she 
said  she  would  get  me  arrested.  That  got  me  mad;  I  did  not  like  it,  because  she 
said  she  would  have  me  arrested.  I  saw  a  few  stones  ahead  of  me  on  the  ground. 
I  picked  up  three  or  four  stones;  then  she  caught  up  with  me.  I  then  started  and 
ran  ahead  about  6  rods,  then  fired  one  of  the  stones  at  her.  I  then  kept  it  up  until 

1  had  bruised  her  very  badly,  then  I  ran  on  to and  caught  a  train  going  to . 

1  did  not  want  to  go  on  the  train,  but  the  station  keeper  put  me  on.  Then,  when 
the  conductor  came  for  my  ticket  I  said  that  I  was  a  poor  boy  without  any  home,  and 

wanted  to  go  to  New  York  City,  but  he  gave  me  a  ride  to .  When  1  got  in 

1  slept  in  the  second  precinct  station  house.  I  told  the  police  that  I  was  a  poor  boy 
and  had  no  home;  had  been  away  from  home  for  four  years  and  had  been  all  around, 
and  they  made  a  collection  for  me  and  I  got  SI. 50.  Then  I  went  down  to  the  State 
board  of  charities  and  asked  the  head  man  of  the  house  for  a  pass  to  New  York  City. 

He  sent  a  man  with  me  to  the  —  —  depot  and  gave  me  the  pass.  I  took  the  pass 
and  got  on  the  train  and  was  going  for  New  York  City.  When  1  reached  New  York 
1  was  asked  by  a  detective  what  my  name  was.  I  told  him  what  it  was.  He  said 
that  father  and  mother  were  looking  for  me.  Then  he  said  I  will  take  you  there;  I 
said  all  right.  Good-bye. 

FROM   THE    RECORDS   OF   THE    INSTITUTION. 

HISTORY    OF  "A." 

Received  May,  1889;  assault,  first  degree,  court  oyer  and  terminer ;  plead 

guilty.     Father,  Catholic;  intemperate,  mother,  dead;  stepmother,  Catholic;  habits, 


112  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

unknown.  No  insanity  or  epilepsy  in  family;  don't  know  about  her  father;  one 
brother  imprisoned  on  BlackwelPs  Island.  Stepparent,  mother,  has  heard  nothing 
of  his  parents  since  they  surrendered  him  six  years  ago;  grandfather,  German;  reads 
and  writes;  langshoreman;  grandmother,  American;  education  unknown,  family 
very  poor;  don't  know  why  father  was  arrested. 

Facts  as  to  "A." 

He  has  known  no  residence;  home  wretched;  Protestant;  no  previous  arrest;  home 

life  till  six  years  ago;  Asylum  and  country  were  places  he  was  at;  very  little 

moral  sense.  He  was  placed  in Asylum  six  years  ago  by  his  parents.  Two 

years  later  he  was  sent  to  Illinois  and  placed  with ;  then  placed  successively 

with  four  different  farmers;  remained  with  the  last  one  the  longest  (about  a  year); 
was  in  Illinois  about  four  years  altogether;  came  away  from  last  place  and  started 
for  New  York,  stealing  rides;  looked  in  vain  for  his  people,  and  was  after  a  few  days 

taken  up  by  the society  of  —  —  and  sent  to  —  — .  He  remained  a  month 

or  more  and  then  ran  away,  and  on  the  same  day  he  struck  a  woman  with  a  stone, 
stealing  up  behind  her.  They  had  ridden  together  in  a  farmer's  sleigh;  she  was  an 
old  woman;  the  assault  was  unprovoked.  They  had  chanced  to  fall  together  on  a 
country  road.  Age,  January,  1889,  15  years.  Health  good;  blue  eyes;  quality  medi- 
um; fair,  light  brown,  clothing  good;  complexion  fair.  On  admission:  Weight,  44.90 
kilos.;  height,  1,494  mm.;  chest,  711-762 mm.  February,  1890:  Weight,  48.07  kilos.; 
height,  1,549  mm.;  chest,  685-762  mm.  May,  1890:  weight,  48.97  kilos.;  height, 
1,574mm.;  chest,  736-812  mm. 

Previous  education,  Third  Reader,  long  division;  assigned  to  third  grade,  second 
division;  previous  occupation,  farm  boy;  assigned  to  tailor  shop.  First  badge  earned 
October  5,  1889;  time,  twenty -one  weeks;  six  complaints.  Second  badge,  March  22, 
1889;  time,  24  weeks;  5  complaints;  total,  11  complaints. 

Complaints  against  "A,"  1889. 

June  28,  by  watchman:  Out  of  his  dormitory  continually  to  make  a  disturbance; 
crawling  along  the  upper  tier  to  other  dormitories  (three  weeks). a 

July  20,  by  tailor:  Not  doing  his  work;  when  other  boys  come  and  get  their  clothes 
fixed,  plays  with  them  (two  weeks). 

August  5,  by  watchman:  Lying  down  on  the  floor  outside  of  his  dormitory;  talk- 
ing to  other  boys;  also,  Saturday  night,  throwing  down  different  articles  he  brought 
from  the  tailor  shop  (three  weeks) . 

September  1,  by  hallman:  Stole  a  book  ("St.  Nicholas")  from  the  school-room 
and  gave  it  to . 

September  8,  by  watchman:  Standing  or  lying  partly  out  of  his  door;  talking  in  a 

loud  tone  to  boy .     I  have  repeatedly  had  to  speak  to  this  boy  in  regard  to 

talking;  have  had  him  on  the  floor;  he  will  not  obey  the  rules;  talked  Friday  and 
Saturday  night  (punished  with  a  strap). 

September  24,  by  watchman:  Report  this  boy  for  throwing  a  short,  heavy  stick 
(called  a  "nib")  from  his  dormitory  door  at  me.  I  saw  the  stick  coming,  and  the 

direction  from  his  door;  he  denies  it;  boy sleeps  next  to  him;  other  side  is 

;  one  of  these  boys  surely  threw  it;  witnesses  (one  week). 

November  16,  by  hallman:  For  disorder  in  the  hall;  throws  rags  (at  boys  — 
and ) . 

December  4,  by  watchman:  Found  in  another  boy's  dormitory  under  the  bed; 
hiding  soon  after  the  first  count  was  taken  (three  weeks).  a 

December  12,  by  superintendent:  Refusing  to  do  as  told;  striking  at  me  with  a 
broken  knife  when  1  attempted  to  punish  him  (punished  with  a  strap). 

December  20,  by  military  instructor:  Running  around  sleeping  hall  and  striking 
boy in  face,  without  provocation  (punished  with  a  strap). 

March  8,  1890:  Disorderly  conduct. 

May  5, 1890,  by  hallman:  For  not  scrubbing  clean,  and  not  taking  care  of  his , 

and  stealing  a  book  from  Mr. (two  weeks). 

September  4:  Caused  trouble  in  his  company  by  interfering  with  the  other  boys. 

October  15:  Throwing  a  dipper  on  the  storeroom  floor. 

March  3,  1891 :  Released.  Home  and  employment  were  found  for  him  with  some 
farmers,  where  "A"  remained  till  March  11,  when  he  ran  away  from  them,  taking 
some  of  their  property.  Since  this  time  he  has  not  been  heard  from. 

a  Three  weeks  added  to  his  time  of  confinement  in  institution. 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  113 

TESTIMONY. 

The  tailor  says:  " Disagreeable  to  other  boys." 

Yard  keeper  says:  "Makes  unreasonable  requests;  becomes  angry,  strikes  a  boy; 
yet  came  with  a  reading  paper,  which  had  been  given  to  him,  and  wanted  me  to 
read  it  first;  has  heard  that  he  put  a  string  around  his  finger  to  make  it  black  in 
order  to  get  out  of  work." 

Physician:  " Only  in  hospital  once "  (nothing  serious). 

Hallman:  "  Raises  his  temper  easy;  does  not  care  how^he  does  his  work;  boys  and 
some  of  the  officers  say  he  is  a  'little  off;'  I  don't  report  the  boy,  as  it  will  do  no 
good;  has  not  improved  on  his  scrubbing  work  for  nine  months.  I  said  he  would 
have  to  go  to  superintendent.  He  answered:  'I  don't  care;  I  will  go  down  and  tell 
him  I  did  my  work  good  enough.' " 

Mr. ,  teacher:  "Tried  to  hang  himself;  too  familiar  with  me;  saw 

my  watch  chain  and  said:  'I  will  have  that  watch  and  chain.'  This  he  did  three  or 
four  times;  but  after  a  reprimand  he  ceased  to  be  familiar." 

Professor  of  drawing  says:  "He  is  a  little  below  the  average  in  his  work,  and  a 
good  boy." 

Mr. ,  school  principal:  "Nervous,  impulsive;  he  will  look  at  you  with  glar- 
ing eyes  when  reproved;  dreamy  way  about  him." 

Mrs. ,  teacher:  "Good  scholar;  industrious;  best  in  arithmetic  (three  months 

in  this  department).  I  never  had  any  trouble  with  him;  never  had  to  speak  to  him, 
to  correct  him;  half  of  the  boys  I  never  spoak  to  at  all,  that  is  to  say:  'Turn  around 
and  study,'  etc. ;  he  was  a  little  behind,  but  caught  up;  he  told  of  killing  the  woman 
as  though  he  would  not  like  to  have  us  tell  about  it;  but  with  no  air  of  vanity,  no 
animation  in  his  face;  he  said  he  would  never  do  it  again." 

Miss ,  teacher:  "Very  good  boy  in  school;  did  fairly  in  all  studies,  but  better 

in  arithmetic;  perceives  quickly;  never  got  angry;  great  boy  to  read  papers  (' Golden 
Days,'  etc.);  was  six  months  under  me." 

Carpenter:  "  No  mechanical  ability;  no  natural  affection  or  feeling  for  any  injury 
he  inflicts;  he  struck  a  boy  in  the  yard;  the  boy  did  not  retort,  but  'A'  simply 
grinned;  if  he  is  disorderly  and  spoken  to  about  it,  he  acts  indifferent;  he  has  not 
shown  the  least  sign  of  anger  or  viciousness,  as  gritting  his  teeth;  when  disorderly 
he  acts  as  if  he  was  not  bright,  just  indifferent;  never  reported  him  because  he  did 
not  seem  vicious.  When  he  struck  the  boy,  he  said,  'I  was  only  fooling;'  he  said 
to  me  he  had  no  reason  at  all  for  stoning  the  old  woman;  he  felt  like  it  and  stoned 
her;  he  did  not  feel  bad  about  it  at  all,  and  had  no  remorse;  this  he  said  when  he 
first  came  here;  never  saw  him  playing  much  with  the  boys;  ever  since  here  he  has 
not  varied  from  being  indifferent  and  doing  things  thoughtlessly;  never  caught  him 
in  a  lie;  if  asked  what  he  did  wrong  for,  he  will  say,  'Well,  I  don't  know.'  No 
hilarity  in  the  boy;  he  grins  a  little;  does  not  talk  loud;  seems  uneasy;  difficult  for 
him  to  remain  still.  He  tied  a  handkerchief  so  tight  around  his  neck  that  he  was 
purple;  he  said  he  wanted  to  choke  himself  to  death,  as  the  fellows  said,  he  told 
them  so.  I  think  he  was  trying  to  show  the  boys  what  he  could  dp  to  'scare'  them. 
When  I  call  him  up  for  disorder  there  are  'spells;'  he  has  a  staring  look,  and  if  I 
ask  him  a  question  he  does  not  seem  to  notice  it,  then  in  an  instant  he  seems  to  come 
to  himself  (he  has  a  vacant  look  when  in  the  'spells'),  and  understands  what  was 
said  to  him;  this  spell  endured  about  a  quarter  of  a  minute;  frequently  those  spells 
come  on  (glare,  hesitating,  and  looking),  but  not  always  when  spoken  to.  When 
reprimanded  sharply  sometimes,  he  did  not  have  these  spells,  he  first  looks  down, 
then  into  my  eye  (glaring)  bends  his  head  simply;  a  short  reprimand  produced  no 
fear  or  scowl,  but  in  every  case  a  sameness,  that  is  he  looks  up  and  down  slowly  as 
if  he  was  planning  something;  but  he  confesses  everything;  most  peculiar  boy  in  this 
institution  in  his  actions — that  is,  a  sameness  in  his  actions,  manner,  motions,  etc. 
My  opinion  is  that  the  boy  would  not  hesitate  a  moment  to  take  his  life;  no  idea  of 
what  is  beyond  the  act." 

The  steward:  "His  make-up  is  not  first-rate;  at  times,  when  I  would  correct  him, 
he  would  stand  and  look  down  and  turn  his  eyes,  acting  as  a  boy  going  to  be  insub- 
ordinate: he  would  show  fullness  of  the  face,  that  he  was  angry,  a  peculiar  form  of 
anger,  having  the  air  of  sullenness  and  rank  temper,  different  from  the  other  boys; 
he  does  not  talk  much  when  angry.  This  spell  would  last  as  long  as  you  talked  to 
him;  once  I  corrected  him,  he  showed  a  good  disposition,  but  could  not  be  called  an 
obedient  boy;  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  time  he  was  with  me  he  told  me  his 
crime;  said  it  was  without  provocation,  on  a  highway;  that  he  broke  her  wrist;  he 
did  not  appear  sorry  lor  it;  told  me  her  name  and  age;  he  is  not  a  bright  boy;  not 
with  the  other  boys  much;  a  boy  somewhat  a  little  silly  was  with  him  some;  the 
boys  '  pumped '  him  and  after  that  dropped  him,  as  they  usually  do,  and  so  the  half- 

S.  Doc.  400 8 


114  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAM. 

silly  fellows  were  with  him  a  little;  after  a  while  he  used  to  play  ball  a  little.  I 
think  he  would  do  injury;  he  is  not  a  good  boy  in  any  sense.  He  had  spells,  so  I 
did  not  trouble  him;  he  was  reported  three  or  four  times,  to  me  for  striking  boys;  he 
denied  it;  he  would  come  up  good  and  cheery  when  called;  once  he  was  /surly,  and 
the  more  I  talked  to  him  the  worse  he  became;  he  was  not  impudent,  nor  did  he 
talk  up  quick;  he  muttered  something  at  that  time." 

Watchman:  "  He  was  with  me  about  four  months;  at  times  he  became  excited  and 
hardly  knew  what  he  did;  he  looked  wild  out  of  his  eyes;  he  often  wet  his  bed;  I 
called  him  three  times  a  night;  he  got  better;  at  times  he  was  cranky;  hard  boy  to 
wake  up,  had  to  shake  him;  he  would  stare  at  me  when  I  called  him;  he  would  act 
as  if  he  were  mad,  and  after  an  hour  he  would  say,  'I  will  try  and  be  a  good  boy 
hereafter;'  he  has  asked  me  to  forgive  him;  he  was  not  bad  intentionally;  I  think  he 
has  lied  to  me;  he  said  he  would  be  a  good  boy,  but  did  not  want  to  be  reported; 
he  ran  upstairs,  I  reprimanded  him,  and  he  threw  a  stick  (nib)  at  me." 

Watchman  (second  division):  "He  has  been  under  me  about  a  year;  ne  is  a  little 
'off;'  he  has  thrown  things  around  the  hall  quite  often,  but  not  so  much  now;  have 
to  call  him  three  times  every  night,  at  10,  12.15,  and  2  to  go  to  the  water-closet;  he 
wakes  up  with  difficulty;  have  caught  him  running  around  fooling  with  other  boys; 
when  reprimanded  he  promises  he  won't  do  it  any  more,  but  if  he  has  a  'pout'  (ill- 
tempered)  he  will  not  say  he  is  sorry;  he  is  no  coward;  sometimes  talks  back;  he 
would  deny  things  he  had  done,  and  sometimes  long  afterwards  he  would  admit  it,  but 

did  not  want  to  get  reported;  his  chum  is ,  who  is  surely  'off;'  the  other  boys 

call  him  a  fool." 

Chaplain:  "His  people  are  not  attendants  at  church;  while  in  home  of was 

not  at  Sunday  school;  this  is  about  all  the  religious  instruction  he  has  had;  here  he 
has  taken  interest  in  the  temperance  work,  signing  the  pledge;  he  came  to  me  several 
times  about  this;  has  attended  our  prayer  meetings  regularly;  is  a  very  close  listener; 
he  says,  'I  don't  want  to  be  a  drunkard;  I  want  to  sign  now.'  " 

Military  instructor:  "He  has  been  a  good  soldier,  is  an  intelligent  one;  has  made 
no  mistake  that  I  know  of." 

Superintendent:  "When  being  reprimanded  in  my  room,  thinking  he  would  be 
whipped,  he  started  to  run  into  the  sleeping  hall;  then  he  stopped  and  drew  a  knife 

out  of  his  pocket;  I  said,  ' ,'  calling  his  name;  and  he  said,  'Lock  me  up,  lock 

me  up;  I  will  give  knife  up,  if  you  will  lock  me  up;'  I  got  him  into  a  dormitory  and 
got  the  knife  away  from  him;  he  ran,  breaking  away  from  me,  into  the  yard  and  up 
into  the  other  sleeping  hall,  and,  getting  a  club,  he  chased  the  boys  out;  the  military 
officer  went  to  get  the  club  away  from  him,  but  he  struck  at  him;  when,  however, 
taken  hold  of,  he  ceased  resisting;  his  eyes  shone  like  a  wild  beast's;  I  whipped  him 
for  that  and  he  cried  a  little;  has  not  been  very  disobedient  since;  this  occurred  after 
he  had  been  here  some  time,  wThen  he  ceased  to  be  a  quiet  boy." 

The  superintendent  of  another  institution,  in  which  "A"  was  formerly,  says:  "He 
was  a  heedless,  disobedient  boy  while  here;  he  showed  no  very  serious  misconduct, 
but  simply  little  petty  meannesses;  he  was  disagreeable  to  his  teacher  and  others;  no 
special  traits  distinguished  him  from  a  hundred  other  boys  here.  We  always  have 
quite  a  large  number  of  boys  whose  foolish  conduct  and  wanton  acts  indicate  a  lack 
of  good  sense  and  a  streak  of  meanness." 

Another  superintendent  says:  "There  was  nothing  special  to  attract  attention  dur- 
ing his  ('A's')  short  stay." 

The  district  attorney  of  the  county  in  which  "A"  was  tried  says :  "  He  is  as  bright 
as  he  is  bad;  he  is  bad  only  in  one  way,  and  that  is  in  his  desire  to  hurt  somebody; 
he  was  indicted  for  assault  in  the  first  degree;  he  met  an  old,  fat  lady  in  the  street, 
knocked  her  down  with  stones,  then  jumped  on  her  and  pounded  her  head  with 
stones;  broke  her  wrist,  etc.;  he  is  a  fair-looking  boy  as  you  ever  saw;  but  seems  to 
have  spells.  Every  man  in  jail  was  afraid  of  him,  for  he  would  throw  things  at  them 
in  unconquerable  fits,  and  he  was  so  small  that  they  would  not  touch  him;  and, 
except  in  those  spasms,  was  a  general  favorite.  I  write  you,  because  if  that  boy  can 
be  cured,  he  will  make  a  very  bright  man." 

In  a  letter  "A"  wrote  to  another  boy  formerly  in  the  institution  he  says:  "Dear 
Sir — I  now  take  the  pleasure  of  writing  you  a  few  lines.  I  am  in  good  health;  I  hope 

you  are  the  same.  The  weather  is  very  delightful  up  here;  I  believe  that  Mr. 

is  going  to  leave  us,  but  I  hope  he  don't  go,  for  if  he  would  I  would  not  like  it.  I  cfm 
still  in  the  'scrubbing  gang'  (lowest  grade);  they  could  not  hire  me  to  go  out  of  it 
for  anything.  When  you  write  to  me,  tell  me  what  you  have  done.  The  first  thing 
when  you  got  home,  did  you  start  for  the  woods?  I  would  like  to  know.  From  your 
friend ,  No. ."  ' 

The  farmer  with  whom  "A"  lived  last  (before  his  crime)  says:  "As  to  theassault 

on  the  old  lady:  They  were  riding  on  a  sleigh  and  they  both  got  off  at ;  and 

she  went  one  way  and  he  the  other.  Then  he  ran  ahead  of  her  and  got  a  stone  and 
threw  it  and  knocked  her  down;  then  pounded  her  and  broke  one  of  her  arms. 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  115 

Some  one,  I  do  not  know  who  it  was,  came  to  her  assistance;  he  ran  and  took  the  cars 

for ,  where  he  was  arrested.     She  was  under  the  doctor's  care  fora  long  time. 

I  do  not  know  whether  she  is  alive  or  not.  The  boy  is  a  bad  boy;  he  was  with  me 
about  four  months,  and  I  was  glad  when  he  left.  Before  he  went  he  had  been  going 
to  school,  and  he  acted  so  with  the  scholars  that  it  was  unendurable.  He  stole  one 
of  their  sleds  and  sold  it,  and  he  took  a  knife  to  my  wife,  but  it  was  before  anything 
else  had  happened;  he  was  not  angry;  so  we  did  not  do  anything  about  it.  I  am 
sorry  he  is  such  a  boy,  for  he  is  a  bright  boy." 

The  physician  says  he  was  called  to  see  the  old  lady;  he  treated  her  "for  a  broken 
arm  and  a  bruised  back,  which  was  about  as  bad  as  her  arm;  her  face  was  somewhat 
cut  and  scratched." 

EXAMINATION   OF    "A." 

I  began  school  when  I  was  four  years  old,  and  went  about  six  years.  One  of  my 
brothers  used  to  hit  me  with  his  fist;  I  would  not  touch  him,  for  I  was  afraid  he 
would  tell  my  mother.  I  hit  him  out  of  spite  once.  Another  of  my  brothers  treated 
me  all  right;  another  pretty  well;  did  not  like  my  stepmother;  she  used  to  whip  me 
too  much.  My  father  quarreled  with  iiiy  real  mother,  would  pound  her  with  his 
fist;  was  always  drunk  then.  He  would  not  do  it  again,  if  I  was  home;  did  not  hit 
her  the  three  months  I  was  there;  if  he  had,  there  would  have  been  a  stick  of  wood 
flying  at  him.  I  do  not  want  to  go  home;  would  not  step  inside  of  the  door,  because 
I  am  afraid  I  would  get  my  head  knocked  off.  I  would  not  have  left  home  had  my 
father  not  got  drunk;  would  run  away  and  then  be  afraid  to  return,  so,  in  order  to 
eat,  some  other  boys  and  I  would  steal  old  iron  and  zinc,  and  sleep  near  the  foun- 
dries inside  of  some  of  the  things  where  it  was  warm;  I  would  miss  school,  and  was 
sent  to  one  or  two  institutions,  and  then  out  West;  I  wanted  to  run  around  and  see 

the  country.  I  left  Mr. ,  because  he  did  not  like  me;  tramoed  around  for 

nearly  two  years,  I  guess;  while  at  Chicago,  broke  into  cars  and  got  something 
to  eat;  I  always  carried  a  knife  with  me  to  keep  larger  tramps  from  pitch- 
ing on  to  me.  I  killed  the  horse  of  ore  farmer  with  a  club;  also  at  another  time  a 
cow  and  a  sheep,  I  wanted  to  get  even  with  the  farmer  for  whipping  me;  I  would 
have  killed  the  farmer,  but  he  was  too  big;  I  don't  like  to  see  a  cow  killed,  because 
it  should  live  as  well  as  we.  I  went  through  Pennsylvania,  because  I  wanted  to  see 
the  country;  was  interested  in  the  coal  mines.  I  went  to  New  York  and  stayed 
about  a  month,  and  was  sent  out  into  the  country  again.  I  did  not  like  the  place; 
the  man  whipped  me  with  a  rattan,  but  not  very  hard;  a  boy  teased  me  at  school 
by  calling  me  names,  so  I  stole  his  sled  and  brought  another  back  in  its  place.  The 
man  I  was  with  I  did  not  like,  so  I  leit  him.  Going  along  the  road  I  met  an  old 
woman,  and  walked  with  her  a  half  an  hour;  then  we  got  into  an  empty  sleigh  and 
rode  about  fifteen  minutes;  the  man  with  the  sleigh  turned  off  on  another  road,  so  we 
got  off.  I  saw  some  large  icicles  in  the  trees  and  began  to  knock  them  down  with 
snowballs.  Then  I  thought  it  would  be  fun  to  throw  at  the  old  lady.  I  threw  them 
pretty  swift;  she  called  me  names;  said  she  would  have  me  arrested  before  night;  I 
threw  two  more  snowballs.  Two  teams  came  along  and  I  stopped  throwing  snow- 
balls, because  they  would  catch  me.  The  snowballs  did  not  hurt  her,  for  they  only 
hit  her  shawl.  I  was  getting  angry;  I  threw  three  small  stones;  only  the  third  one 
hit  her  on  the  arm;  she  said  she  would  have  me  arrested.  I  saw  a  bare  place  where 
there  were  some  stones.  I  ran  ahead  to  it,  crossing  a  road;  she  ran  down  this  road  to 
get  away  from  me.  I  ran  across  lots  after  her;  she  slipped  down  on  the  ice.  I  threw 
larger  stones  at  her;  threw  them  underhand,  as  I  could  do  itswifter;  two  of  the  stones 
were  large;  about  5  inches  long  and  2  inches  thick.  I  kicked  at  her,  but  hit  the 
bundle  of  clothes;  the  stones  made  gashes  on  her  head;  the  big  stone  broke  her  wrist. 
I  saw  some  one  running  up  from  the  station,  so  I  stopped  and  ran  away." 

On  closer  questioning  the  following  was  brought  out: 

Q.  Why  didn't  you  throw  all  the  stones  at  her? 

A.  Because  I  did  not  wrant  to  waste  them  011  her  so  quick;  she  screamed  each  time, 
and  1  kept  on  just  to  hear  her  scream  for  the  fun  of  it,  to  get  even  with  her. 

Q.  Why  didn't  you  jump  on  her  with  your  feet  instead  of  your  knees? 

A.  Because  I  did  not  want  to  go  too  fast. 

Q.  Why  did  you  not  get  right  over  her  and  throw  the  big  stones  right  down  on  her 
harder? 

A.  I  could  throw  them  underhand  easier,  jerk  them. 

Q.  How  did  you  feel  all  this  time? 

A.  I  felt  dizzy  all  the  time  after  I  threw  the  first  snowball;  I  kept  a-going  to  keep 
myself  from  falling  down  and  hitting  someone  or  something  else.  When  I  ran  away 
I  had  the  same  dizziness  about  ten  minutes,  and  then  fell  down  tired  out;  then  in 
three  minutes  I  was  all  right  again.  I  commenced  having  dizziness  in  the  head  right 
after  I  got  angry;  I  can  not  control  myself;  can  stand  some  fun  from  the  boys,  but 
soon  I  get  angry  and  mean  to  kill  them.  1  threatened  the  superintendent  "with  a 

^^r"  — - =s~v^ 

A  h 


r\r  -I-LJ  , 


116  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

knife  because  I  thought  he  was  going  to  punish  me;  I  meant  to  kill  him.  I  had  no 
dizziness  while  killing  horse,  cow,  and  sheep  to  get  even  with  the  farmers;  sometimes 
I  get  angry  without  feeling  dizzy.  Saying  she  would  have  me  arrested  made  me 
angry.  These  spells  last  about  an  hour.  When  I  drew  the  knife  on  the  superintendent, 
and  struck  the  club  at  the  military  officer,  I  did  not  have  any  dizziness,  but  got  mad. 
When  I  become  dizzy  I  try  to  kill;  sometimes,  I  say,  it  is  just  for  the  fun  of  it,  but  I 
really  want  to  kill.  I  just  as  leave  die  as  not  and  go  and  see  my  mother.  If  I  killed 
anyone  they  would  hang  me,  so  I  would  die.  I  wanted  to  kill  the  old  woman,  but 
was  not  thinking  of  being  killed  myself  at  that  time.  I  did  not  want  to  get  caught, 
or  I  would  have  killed  her  by  throwing  the  stones  at  her  head.  I  wouldn't  have 
cared  if  they  had  killed  me  at  this  time.  I  don't  hardly  feel  I  am  to  blame.  I  know 
I  am  to  blame  for  killing  the  old  woman.  I  began  to  feel  I  was  to  blame  after  I  came 
to  this  institution.  I  never  read  books  about  murder;  I  could  not  say  how  I  got  the 
idea,  it  simply  comes  to  me. 

Q.  Did  you  try  to  kill  yourself  once? 

A.  I  went  into  the  rag  room  where  there  was  a  closet  in  which  I  knew  there  was 
a  window  cord;  but  the  closet  was  locked.  My  mother  was  dead,  I  did  not  want  to 
live;  I  had  no  friends.  I  took  a  black  linen  thread  and  tried  to  hang  myself;  it  only 
cut  my  neck.  I  took  a  yarn  and  tied  it  around  my  ringer  till  it  was  black  in  order 
to  get  out  of  work.  I  did  not  like  the  work. 

Q.  What  did  you  do  after  your  trial? 

A.  I  was  in  jail  six  months. 

Q.  What  did  you  do  in  jail? 

A.  I  used  to  sing  to  them  to  amuse  them. 

Q.  What  did  they  do? 

A.  They  used  to  play  cards. 

Q.  Did  you  play  cards? 

A.  No;  it  is  wrong  to  play  cards;  for  I  do  not  want  to  become  a  gambler. 

Q.  Where  did  you  learn  that? 

A.  At  one  of  the  places  I  was  at. 

A  physiological  examination  (by  the  physician  of  institution):  Vegetative  func- 
tions, normal;  circulation,  normal;  respiration,  20;  digestion,  good;  anomalies,  none; 
pulse,  80;  girth  of  thorax,  724-787  mm.;  girth  of  waist,  660  mm.;  girth  of  thigh, 
444  mm.;  girth  of  calf  of  leg,  317  mm.;  weight,  109  Ibs.  (49.44  kilos.);  physical 
anomalies,  none. 

,  M.  D. 

Craniological  measurements  are:  Width  of.  head,  128  mm.;  length  from  glabella 
to  occipital  protuberance,  190  mm.;  maximum  length  of  head,  190  mm.;  width 
above  tragus,  134  mm. ;  width  between  zygomatic  arches,  127  mm. ;  width  between 
external  edges  of  orbits,  96mm.;  distance  between  outer  corners  of  eyes,  90mm.; 
distance  between  inner  corners  of  eyes,  32  mm. ;  width  between  prot.  malaria,  119 
mm. ;  width  between  gonia,  96  mm. ;  distance  from  chin  to  hair,  158  mm. ;  distance 
from  chiruto  root  of  nose,  108mm.;  distance  from  chin  to  base  of  nose,  66mm.; 
distance  from  chin  to  mouth,  50mm.;  distance  from  chin  to  tragus,  95mm.;  dis- 
tance from  tragus  to  root  of  nose,  97  mm. ;  length  of  ear,  61  mm. ;  length  of  nose, 
47  mm. ;  elevation  of  nose,  49  mm. ;  width  of  nose,  31  mm. ;  width  of  mouth,  42 
mm. ;  thickness  of  lips,  15  mm. ;  horizontal  circumference  of  head,  540  mm. ;  vertical 
circumference  of  head,  349  mm.:  sagittal  circumference  of  head,  368  mm.;  angle  of 
profile,  60  mm.  Color  of  eye,  gray;  color  of  hair,  light.  There  was  an  observed 
flatness  to  the  eyelids. 

CONCLUSION. 

"A"  is  a  case  of  pure  murder.  His  anomaly  or  abnormality  consists 
in  a  lack  of  repulsion  to  taking  life.  He  is  no  coward,  nor  wanting  in 
will  power.  His  intelligence  is  above  the  average,  yet  he  is  at  times 
stubborn  and  lazy  and  mean,  although  he  may  be  partly  unconscious 
of  this  latter  element.  He  acts  oddly  at  times.  His  idea  of  justice 
seemed  to  be  "getting  even"  with  every  one.  He  is  unaware  of  how 
his  want  of  repulsion  to  killing  appears  to  others.  Many  .boys  neglect 
their  work  and  are  whipped,  but  they  do  not  kill  cows  and  horses  to 
"get  even."  The  dizziness  of  "A"  might  suggest  epilepsy,  but  the 
fact  that  he  is  never  unconscious  and  remembers  everything  is  against 
such  a  theory.  Spells  of  anger  where  self-control  is  lost  are  not 
uncommon,  and  one  will  strike  with  the  hand  or  throw  something,  but 
seldom  go  further  unless  there  is  a  radical  defect  somewhere.  Given 


A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.  117 

a  boy  who  becomes  angry  easily,  losing  self-control,  who  at  the  same 
time  lacks  repulsion  to  taking  life,  and  whose  surroundings  have  been 
favorable  to  bring  this  element  out,  and  the  case  of  "A"  is  a  clear  one. 
That  such  a  boy  is  dangerous  is  self-evident.  Considering  his  early 
and  evil  surroundings  it  is  questionable  how  far  he  is  to  blame  for  his 
murderous  acts.  It  is  doubtful  if  he  should  be  allowed  to  be  free  in 
the  community,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  for  his 
training  has  been  such  that  he  is  angered  very  easily.  To  speak  to 
him  cross  or  to  punish  him  is  probably  the  worst  thing  that  can  be 
done.  He  may  outgrow  this  murderous  tendency  by  experience  in 
the  community,  but  can  the  community  afford  or  has  it  the  right  to 
make  such  experiments  as  expose  its  members  to  danger? 
"A"  was  at  large  when  last  heard  of. 

MAN    FROM    SCIENTIFIC    POINT   OF    VIEW. 

Looking  at  man  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  he  exceeds  all  others 
in  criminality;  he  kills  not  only  his  own  species,  which  the  animals 
rarely  do,  but  beings  of  all  other  species  with  impunity;  those  which 
it  is  not  an  advantage  to  kill  he  subjects  to  slavery.  The  egotism  of 
the  human  species  surpasses  that  of  all  others.  The  basis  of  this 
egotism  is  a  combination  of  psychic  and  physical  force,  not  moral 
force. 

At  present  the  bloody  idea  of  war  still  remains  in  the  whole  human 
race.  Modern  Europe,  where  the  highest  civilization  exists,  has  at 
least  12,000,000  men  trained  for  war,  while  Rome,  with  her  vast 
empire,  had  only  300,000  legionaries;  and  this  is  the  state  of  the 
world  which,  at  present,  is  in  its  commercial  glory,  and  yet,  in  the 
face  of  this,  it  is  claimed  that  commerce  and  war  are  antagonists;  but 
it  is  said  that  war  has  the  advantage  of  purging  the  race.  To  accom- 
plish this,  however,  cholera  is  much  more  effective,  for  the  lower  strata 
are  preeminently  the  sufferers,  while  in  war  much  of  the  best  blood  of 
a  nation  is  sacrificed.  The  savage  instinct  of  murder  is  still  deeply 
rooted.  War  from  the  natural  history  point  of  view  is  universal 
murder,  an  extension  and  development  of  universal  homicide.  In 
primitive  times  it  was  terrible  in  character,  exceeding  the  ferocity  of 
the  wildest  beasts;  in  the  next  stage  of  development  one  did  not  eat 
his  enemy,  but  mutilated  and  tortured  him;  and  modern  civilized  war 
is  the  same  in  essence,  though  different  in  form,  for  inventive  genius 
is  at  present  exerting  itself  to  its  utmost  to  discover  how  to  kill  and 
mutilate  the  enemy  at  great  distances,  and,  to  the  disgrace  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  humanity,  it  seems  to  have  succeeded.  And,  while  we 
look  with  horror  upon  the  cannibal,  the  words  of  Montaigne  are  not 
inapplicable  when  he  says  that  "It  is  more  barbarous  to  kill  a  live  man 
than  to  roast  and  eat  a  dead  one." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY. a 

In  addition  to  the  titles  taken  from  various  works,  the  bibliography  consists  of 
selections  from  the  following  bibliographies:  Bibliography  of  Child  Study,  by  Louis 
N.  Wilson;  titles  relating  to  the  anthropometry  of  children  in  a  preliminary  report 
on  Anthropometry  in  the  United  States,  by  Dr.  Edward  M.  Hartwell;  psychological 
indexes  of  The  Psychological  Review;  Bibliographic  der  psycho-physiologischen 

aThe  author  was  assisted  much  in  the  preparation  of  this  bibliography  by  his 
mother,  Mrs.  Angus  MacDonald. 


118  A  PLAN  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

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the  Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon-General's  Office. 

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have  these  after  the  special  articles  to  which  they  refer,  and  also  to  preserve  the 
classification  made  by  their  authors. 

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beginnings  of  reading  and  writing,  with  Dr.  H.  T.  Lukens;  IV.  Thoughts 
and  feelings  about  old  age,  disease,  and  death,  with  C.  A.  Scott;  V.  Moral 
education,  with  N.  P.  Avery ;  VI.  Studies  of  school  reading  matter,  with  J. 
C.  Shaw;  VII.  Courses  of  study  in  elementary  grammar  and  high  schools, 
with  T.  R.  Crosswell;  VIII.  Early  musical  manifestations,  with  Florence 
Marsh;  IX.  Fancy,  imagination,  reverie,  with  E. H. Lindley;  X.  Tickling, 
fun,  wit,  humor,  laughing,  with  Dr.  Arthur  Allin ;  XI.  Suggestion  and  imita- 
tion, with  M.  H.  Small;  XII.  Religious  experience,  with  E.  E.  Starbuck; 

XIII.  Kindergarten,  with  Miss  Anna  E.  Bryan  and  Miss  Lucy  Wheelock; 

XIV.  Habits,  instincts,  etc.,  in  animals,  with  Dr.  R.  R.  Gurley;  XV.  Number 
and  mathematics,  with  D.  E.  Phillips;  XVI.  The  only  child  in  the  family, 
with  E.  W.  Bohannon.     1896-97:  Degrees  of  certainty  and  conviction  in 
children,  with  Maurice  H.  Small;  II.  Sabbath  and  worship  in  general,  with 
J.  P.  Hylan;  III.  Migrations,  tramps,  truancy,  running  away,  etc.,  vs.  love 
of  home,  with  L.  W.  Kline;  IV.  Adolescence,  and  its  phenomena  in  body 
and  mind,  with  E.  G.  Lancaster;  V.  Examinations  and  recitations,  with 
John  C.  Shaw;  VI.  Stillness,  solitude,  restlessness,  with  H.  S.  Curtis;  VII. 
The  psychology  of  health  and  disease,  with  Henry  H.  Goddard ;  VIII.  Spon- 
taneously invented  toys  and  amusements,  with  T.  R.  Crosswell ;  IX.  Hymns 
and  sacred  music,  with  Rev.  T.  R.  Peede;  X.  Puzzles  and  their  psychology, 
with  Ernest  H.  Lindley;  XL  The  sermon,  with  Rev.  Alva  R.  Scott;  XII. 
Special  traits,  as  indices  of  character  and  as  mediating  likes  and  dislikes, 
with  E.  W.  Bohannon;  XIII.  Reverie  and  allied  phenomena,  with  G.  E. 
Partridge;  XIV.  The  psychology  of  health  and  disease,  with  H.  H.  Goddard. 
1897-98:  I.  Immortality,  with  J.  Richard  Street;  II.  Psychology  of  owner- 
ship v*.  loss,  with  Linus  W.  Kline;  III.  Memory,  with  F.  W.  Colegrove; 
IV.  Humorous  and  cranky  side  in  education,  with  L.  W.  Kline;  V.  The 
psychology  of  shorthand  writing,  with  J.  O.  Quantz;   VI.  The  teaching 
instinct,  with  D.  E.  Phillips ;  VII.  Home  and  school  punishments  and  penal- 
ties, with  Charles  H.  Sears;  VIII.  Straightness  and  uprightness  of  body,  by 
G.  Stanley  Hall;  IX.  Conventionality,  with  Albert  Schinz;  X.  Local  vol- 
untary association  among  teachers,  with  Henry  D.  Sheldon ;  XI.  Motor  edu- 
cation, with  E.  W.  Bohannon;  XII.  Heat  and  cold,  by  G.  Stanley  Hallj 
XIII.  Training  of  teachers,  with  W.G.  Chambers;  XIV.  Educational  ideals, 
with  Lewis  Edwin  York;  XV.  Water  psychoses,  with  Frederick  E.  Bolton; 

XVI.  The  institutional  activities  of   children,  with  Henry  D.  Sheldon; 

XVII.  Obedience  and  obstinacy,  with  Tilmon  Jenkins;  XVIII.  The  sense  of 
honor  among  children,  with  Robert  Clark. 

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% 

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ED  98 87 


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—  Measurements  of  Chattanooga  school  children.     Amer.  Medicine,  Philadel- 

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—  Hearing  on  bill  (H.  R.  14798)  to  establish  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  the 

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154  A  PLAN  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

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APPENDIX. 

SENATORS    AND   REPRESENTATIVES   FAVORING    PLAN. 

The  following  gentlemen  in  Congress,  or  formerly  so,  have  written  letters  to  the 
Department  favoring  the  work: 

Senators. — Hon.  George  F.  Hoar,  Hon.  Augustus  O.  Bacon,  Hon.  T.  C.  Platt,  Hon. 
Boies  Penrose,  Hon.  Matthew  S.  Quay,  Hon.  John  C.  Spooner,  Hon.  H.  D.  Money, 
Hon.  Thomas  S.  Martin,  Hon.  J.  C.  S.  Blackburn,  Hon.  Charles  F.  Manderson,  Hon. 
David  Turpie,  Hon.  James  H.  Kyle,  Hon.  Lee  Mantle,  Hon.  Justin  S.  Morrill,  Hon. 
George  L.  Shoup,  Hon.  N.  C.  Blanchard,  Hon.  R.  F.  Pettigrew. 

Representatives. — Hon.  David  B.  Henderson,  Hon.  George  W.  Kay,  Hon.  Sereno  E. 
Payne,  Hon.  J.  H.  Southard,  Hon.  E.  Stevens  Henry,  Hon.  Irving  P.  Wanger,  Hon. 
William  A.  Stone,  Hon.  R.  W.  Tayler,  Hon.  Amos  J.  Cummings,  Hon.  Marriott 
Brosius,  Hon.  Case  Broderick,  Hon.  N.  M.  Curtis,  Hon.  John  K.  Cowen,  Hon.  Uriel  S. 
Hall,  Hon.  Henry  C.  Brewster,  Hon.  H.  S.  Greenleaf,  Hon.  John  Van  Vorhis,  Hon. 
H.  W.  Rusk,  Hon.  Foster  V.  Brown,  Hon.  John  L.  McLaurin 


OPINIONS   OF   SCIENTIFIC   JOURNALS. 


The  Revue  de  Psychologic  Clinique  et  Therapeutique,  of  Paris,  says:  "  That  which 
authorizes  us  to  ask  as  to  the  application  of  Juvenal's  aphorism,  mens  sana  in  copore 
sano,  is  the  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  the  physical  t<  >  the  psychical  indicated  by 
the  presence  of  numerous  degenerative  stigmata  in  individuals  attacked  with  some 
abnormal  mental  condition  or  derangement.  The  scientific  verification  of  these 
relations  is  an  acquisition  of  very  recent  date;  it  rests  entirely  upon  the  progress  of 
anthropology,  for  this  science  has  taken  to  itself  a  part  of  psychological  examination, 
which  we  shall  undertake  to  explain  by  giving  a  review  of  the  method  of  MacDonald. 

"It  is  necessary  to  assure  ourselves  of  the  influence  of  educational  methods  for 
two  reasons — because  education  is  concerned  with  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
development  of  individuals,  who  are  an  integral  part  of  society  and  possess  its  power 
of  regeneration,  and  because  educational  processes  tend  to  place  young  persons  in 
the  condition  of  artificial  life,  which  from  every  point  of  view  it  is  necessary  to 
analyze  thoroughly  in  order  to  know  which  of  these  processes  and  respective  con- 
ditions are  related  to  social  degeneracy  or  regeneration." 

The  Medical  Record,  of  New  York,  says:  "Such  a  large  number  of  careful  and 
complete  measurements  of  school  children  have  not  been  made  for  some  time,  and 
the  author  of  this  report  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  his  achievement.  From  a 
strictly  scientific  point  of  view  such  statistics  are  of  inestimable  value,  and  it  is  rare 
to  find  an  investigator  with  patience  enough  to  undertake  the  task.  It  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  general  science  that  a  knowledge  of  individual  factors  is 
necessary  for  the  forming  of  correct  generalizations.  In  sociological  science,  in 
ethics,  and  in  many  related  domains  such  careful  individual  studies  have  yet  to  be 
made.  The  present  study  will  prove  of  help  to  the  educator." 

The  Centralblattfiir  Anthropologie.  Ethnologic  und  Urgeschichte  (Germany)  says: 
"The  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Education  for  1897-98  contains  an  extraordi- 
narily weighty  work  of  MacDonald' s  on  anthropometrical  and  psychophysical 
observations  on  children.  In  addition  to  the  investigations  specially  undertaken  on 
Washington  children,  the  author  has  given  in  a  praiseworthy  way  an  account  of  the 
results  of  measurements  of  children  in  general,  a  list  of  useful  psychophysical  instru- 
ments, and  a  comprehensive  bibliography. 

"This  work  is  so  rich  in  facts  that  it  is  impossible  in  one  review  to  enter  into 
details.     The  report,  therefore,  can  bring  out  only  the  principal  results. 
MacDonald' s  work  will  form  a  guide  and  valuable  help  to  every  one  who  is  engaged 
in  the  elevation  of  the  schools." 

159 


160  A  PLAN  FOB  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN. 

The  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal  says:  "  Such  work  as  this  is  of  unques- 
tioned Value.  Much  may,  no  doubt,  be  learned  through  painstaking  investigations 
of  this  sort  regarding  the  general  subject  of  sensation.  The  results  of  such  experi- 
ments should  always  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  physician,  who  is  at  times  too  prone 
to  detect  differences  where  in  fact  they  do  not  exist.  Such  an  accurate  investigation 
as  the  foregoing  among  persons  below  the  normal  average  of  health  would  certainly 
reveal  many  facts  of  interest.  We  are  all  dimly  conscious  that  individuals  differ 
in  their  reactions  to  painful  stimuli,  but  we  are  much  in  need  of  a  standard  to  which 
any  given  case  may  be  applied,  and  such  a  standard  is  only  to  be  attained  by  the 
careful  study  of  great  numbers  of  persons  both  in  health  and  disease." 

La  Policlinique,  of  Brussels,  says:  "Paidology,  or  the  science  of  childhood,  is  a 
new  science;  it  seeks  to  substitute  for  the  ensemble  of  traditional  truths  a  series  of 
principles  established  by  rigorous  observations  and  experiment,  destined  to  become 
the  positive  basis  of  doctrines  and  sure  methods. 

"It  is  due  to  an  official  initiative  that  works  can  be  undertaken  like,  for  example, 
an  experimental  study  of  children  published  very  recently  in  the  United  States  by 
Arthur  MacDonald,  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  of  Washington. 

"The  facts  brought  out  in  this  work  are  not  vague  impressions,  but  the  translation 
of  a  very  considerable  number  of  observations  tabulated  according  to  numerous 
classes  and  graphically  and  very  suggestively  expressed  in  schemes.  The  reader  may 
see  how  a  science  proceeds  in  formation.  Some  of  the  truths  are  very  incomplete, 
puerile  often,  in  appearance  of  minimal  importance  perhaps;  recorded  without  regard 
to  logical  sequence,  not  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  a  fact.  Should  those  veri- 
ties confirm  a  fact  already  known,  of  the  most  common  observation,  they  bring  to 
the  convictions  of  each  one  of  us  the  precision  of  figures  and  constitute  documents 
that  can  not  be  assailed. 

"Nothing  is  more  curious,  also,  at  this  first  stage  of  a  science  than  to  see  an  investi- 
gation undertaken  with  a  preconceived  intention  result  in  unexpected  conclusions 
absolutely  opposed  to  the  conceptions  of  the  author,  and  then  open  unexpectedly  a 
whole  domain  of  fertility  unknown  to  science." 

INDORSEMENTS  OF  SOCIETIES,  ETC. 

AMSTERDAM, 

139  Stadhouderskade,  September  1,  1901. 

DEAR  SIR:  I  am  intrusted  by  the  committee  of  the  Fifth  International  Congress  of 
Criminal  Anthropology,  Amsterdam,  September  9-14,  1901,  to  inform  you  that  in  the 
last  meeting  of  the  congress  a  motion  was  proposed  by  Dr.  Louise  G.  Robinovitch, 
which  was,  after  some  discussion,  passed  by  the  congress. 
The  motion  was  worded  as  follows: 

"The  members  of  the  Fifth  International  Congress  for  Criminal  Anthropology  are 
in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  psychophysical  laboratories  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  physiological  psychology  to  sociological  and  abnormal  or  pathological  data, 
especially  as  found  in  institutions  for  the  criminal,  pauper,  and  defective  classes,  and 
in  hospitals,  and  also  as  may  be  observed  in  schools  and  other  institutions." 
I  am,  dear  sir,  yours,  most  sincerely, 

J.  WERTHEIM  SALOMONSON, 

Secretary-General  of  the  Congress. 

ARTHUR  MACDONALD,  Esq.,  Washington,  U.  S. 

This  congress  consists  of  distinguished  specialists  from  all  Europe,  and  it  is,  per- 
haps, the  highest  authority  in  Europe.  In  our  country,  up  to  date, -the  following 
associations  have  passed  the  same  or  similar  resolution:  Four  national  medical  soci- 
eties and  associations:  The  American  Medical  Association,  the  Association  of  American 
Medical  Editors,  American  Medico-Psychological  Association,  and  the  Association 
for  the  Study  and  Cure  of  Inebriety;  18  State  medical  societies;  Idaho,  Indiana,  Kan- 
sas, Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Minnesota;  Connecticut  Eclectic  Medical  Society  of 
Connecticut;  Medical  Society  of  the  Missouri  Valley;  Mississippi  Valley  Medical  Asso- 
ciation; Orange  County  Medical  Association,  New  York;  New  England;  Psychologi- 
cal Society  of  Alienists,  also  New  England  Hospital  Society;  North  Dakota,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Texas;  Tri-State  Medical  Society  of  Alabama,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee;  Utah  and  Wisconsin;  3  city  medical  societies,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and 
Syracuse;  and  the  Medical  Society  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  West  Virginia,  and 
Virginia;  presbyteries  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  Allegheny  and  Blairsville,  Pa. ;  dioceses 
of  Michigan,  North  Carolina,  and  central  Pennsylvania;  Bar  Association  of  New  Mex- 
ico; Bar  Association  of  Kansas. 


A  PLAN  FOB  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN.         .   161 

Specialists  who  have  written  letters  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior  in  favor  of  a  laboratory 
to  study  the  criminal,  pauper,  and  defective  classes. 

One  of  the  main  objects  of  the  laboratory  is  to  study  statistically  and  with  snstru- 
ments  of  precision  the  criminal,  pauper,  defective,  and  other  abnormal  classes.  It  ia 
a  laboratory  for  sociological  purposes. 

Some  of  the  specialists  mentioned  below  are  in  different  lines  of  work,  but  these 
lines  are  intimately  connected  with  the  work  of  the  laboratory. 

AMERICAN  SPECIALISTS. 

Prof.  Angell,  J.  R.  (experimental  psychology),  University  of  Chicago. 
Prof.  Buchanan,  J.  L.  (psychology  and  ethics),  president  University  of  Arkansas. 
Prof.  Burnham,  Wm.  H.  (pedagogy),  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Prof.  Barker,  L.  F.  (anatomyj ,  Chicago  University. 
Prof.  Bigham,  J.  (psychology) ,  University  of  Michigan. 
Prof.  Brinton,  D.  G.  (anthropology),  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Prof.  Butler,  Nathaniel,  president  of  Colby  College,  Maine. 
Prof.  Chrisman,  O.  (paidology),  State  Normal  School,  Kansas. 
Prof.  Caldwell,  W.  (ethics),  Northwestern  University,  Chicago,  111. 
Prof.  Calkins,  Mary  W.  (psychology),  Wellesley  College. 
Prof.  Dana,  C.  L.  (nervous  system).  Cornell  University. 
Prof.  Denny,  C.  (moral  philosophy),  Vanderbilt  University,  Tennessee. 
Prof.  Ely,  R.  T.  (political  economy),  University  of  \Visconsin. 
Prof.  Forbes,  J.  F.,  president  of  John  B.  Stetson  University,  Florida. 
Prof.  Gardiner,  H.  N.  (philosophy),  Smith  College,  Massachusetts. 
Prof.  Henderson,  C.  R.  (sociology),  Chicago  University. 
Prof.  Hawthorne,  B.  J.  (philosophy),  University  of  Oregon. 
Prof.  Heston,  J.  W.,  president  Agricultural  College  of  South  Dakota. 
Prof.  Hicks,  F.  C.  (economics) ,  University  of  Missouri. 
Prof.  Karns,  T.  C.  (philosophy  and  pedagogy),  University  of  Tennessee. 
Prof.  Krohn,  W.  O.,  psychologist  in  Illinois  Eastern  Hospital. 
Prof.  Lombard,  W.  P.  (physiology),  University  of  Michigan. 
Prof.  Luckey,  G.  W.  A.  (pedagogy),  University  of  Nebraska. 
Prof.  MacDonald,  Carlos  JF.  (insanity  and  legal  medicine),  New  York  University. 
Prof.  Mezes,  Sydney  E.  (psychology),  University  of  Texas. 
Prof.  Merz,  H.  (philosophy  and  social  science),  University  of  Wyoming. 
Prof.  Mills,  Wesley  (physiology),  McGill  University,  Montreal. 
Prof.  Mills,  Charles  K.   (mental  diseases,  medical  "jurisprudence),  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Prof.  Mall,  F.  P.  (embryology),  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Prof.  Patrick,  G.  T.  W.  (psychology),  University  of  Iowa. 

Prof.  Pearce,  F.  S.  (nervous  diseases),  Medico-Chirurgical  College,  Philadelphia. 

Prof.  Sanford,  E.  C.  (psychology), Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 


Prof.  Scott,  W.  H.  (philosophy),  Ohio  State  University. 

Prof.  Scripture,  E.  W.  (psycho-physics),  Yale  University. 

Prof.  Starr,  F.  (anthropology),  Chicago  University. 

Prof.  Stanley,  H.  M.  (psychology),  Lake  Forest  University,  Illinois. 

Prof.  Swift,  E.  J.  (psychology),  State  Normal  School,  Wisconsin. 

Prof.  Thwing,  C.  F.,  president  of  Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Prof.  Wood,  H.  C.  (nervous  diseases),  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Prof.  Wenley,  R.  M.  (philosophy),  University  of  Michigan. 

Prof.  Allison,  H.  E.,  superintendent  Mattea wan  State  Hospital  (forcriminal  insane), 
New  York  State. 

Prof.  Bulkley,  L.  D.,  M.  D.,  secretary  New  York  Skin  and  Cancer  Hospital. 

Prof.  Brown,'  Chas.  H.,  editor  Journal  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases,  New  York. 

Prof.  Barr,  M.  W.,  chief  phvsician  of  Pennsvlvania  Training  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Children. 

Prof.  Bruce,  C.  E.,  M.  D.,  superintendent  New  York  Juvenile  Asylum. 

Prof.  Brockway,  Z.  R.,  formerly  superintendent  Elmira  Reformatory. 

Prof.  Crothers,  T.  D.,  M.  D.,  editor  Journal  of  Inebriety,  Hartford,  Conn. 

Prof.  Christopher,  W.  S.,  M.  D.,  board  of  education,  Chicago,  111. 

Prof.  Carson,  J.  C.,  M.  D.,  superintendent  Syracuse  State  Institute  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Children. 

Prof.  Drahmas,  A.,  chaplain  of  prison,  San  Quentin,  Cal. 

Prof.  Flood,  E.,  M.  D.,  superintendent  Massachusetts  Hospital  for  Epileptics. 

Prof.  Hallock,  F.  K.,  M.  D.,  Cromwell  Hall  (nervous  diseases),  Cromwell,  Conn. 

S.  Doc.  400 11 


102  A  PLAN  FOE  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN- 

Prof.  McCorn,  Wm.  A.,  resident  physician  River  Crest  (nervous  diseases),  New 
York  City. 

Prof.  S'.rady,  G.  F.,  M.  D.,  editor  of  Medical  Record,  New  York  City. 
Prof.  Warner,  Chas.  Dudley,  Hartford,  Conn. 

EUROPEAN   SPECIALISTS. 

Professor  Desspir  (psycho-physics),  University  of  Berlin. 

Professor  Ferri  (Senator)  (criminal  law),  University  of  Rome. 

Professor  Lasson  (philosophy),  University  of  Berlin. 

Professor  Lpmbroso  (criminology),  University  of  Turin. 

Professor  Lilenthal  (criminal  law),  University  of  Heidelberg. 

Professor  Mosso  (physiology,  psycho-physics),  University  of  Turin. 

Professor  Marro  (insanity) /University  of  Turin. 

-Professor  Obersteiner  (nervous  system),  University  of  Vienna. 

Professor  Ottolenghi  (legal  medicine),  University  of  Siena. 

professor  Ranke  (anthropology),  University  of  Munich. 

Professor  Sergi  (anthropology),  University  of  Rome. 

Professor  Vogt  (hypnology),  University  of  Berlin. 

Dr.  Daniel,  physician  at  School  for  Special  Instruction  at  Antwerp. 

Dr.  Havelock  Ellis,  editor  of  Contemporary  Science  Series,  London;  author  of  The 
Ciiminal. 

Gibson,  G.  A.,  M.  D.,  editor  of  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  Scotland. 

Morrison,  W.  D.,  D.  D.,  formerly  chaplain  of  Her  Majesty's  prisons,  London; 
author  of  Juvenile  Offenders. 

btead,  W.  T.,  editor  of  Review  of  Reviews,  London,  England. 

Tallack,  William,  secretary  of  Howard  Association,  London;  author  of  Penolog- 
ical  Principles. 

Warner,  Francis,  F.  R.  C.  P.  (abnormal  children),  London,  England. 

De  Watterville,  M.  D.,  editor  of  Brain,  London,  England. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Abnormal  children  and  hypnotism 65 

Abnormalities  and  measurements 13 

Aboulia  and  emotion 58 

uEsthesiometer 25 

Alcoholism 100-1 02 

Alcoholism  and  insanity 102 

Algometer 26 

Attention ^ 73 

Anarchistic  criminals 4 

Auto-hypnotism 60 

Auto-hypnotism  not  always  advisable 60 

Auto-suggestion  and  crime 92 

Baroelectro-sesthesiometer 25 

Bertillon  system  of  measurement 85 

Bible,  interest  in 20 

Bibliography  of  child  study 117 

Bills,  nature  of,  Congressmen  introducing  them 4 

Blushing 20 

Blushing  and  fear 75 

Book  knowledge,  defects  of 28 

Brain  of  criminals,  physiology  of .  _ . 83 

Callipers 9 .        23 

Camorra 88 

Chattanooga  children,  measurements  of 33-37 

Child  study,  bibliography  of 117 

Children,  fears  in 19 

Children  of  great  men 19 

Children,  superiority  of  some 15 

Children's  rights 15 

Children,  types  of  in  Germany 41-44 

City  Kfe,  influence  of "„ 16 

Cksses  of  society 93-94 

Classes  of  society  superior  in  height  and  weight 47 

Climate  and  drunkenness 103 

Collecting  interest 20 

College  women,  susceptibility  to  disease  and  physical  development  of 30-32 

Color  of  skin,  hair  and  eyes,  relation  of 43 

Conclusions  as  to  criminal  man ^ 100 

Conclusions  from  the  study  of  man  as  to  growth,  sight,  sound,  memory,  skin, 
taste  and  smell,  movement,  attention,  volition,  stimulation  and  sensation, 
moral  sense,  reading  and  writing,  illusions  and  dreams,  blushing  and  fear, 

power  and  estimation,  Washington  school  children 71-76 

Cost  of  crime , 

Cranium,  measurements  of 23 

Crime  and  education 63 

Crime  and  its  punishment,  Garofalo's  ideas 103-108 

Crime,  cost  of 

Crime,  relation  of  education  to 98-100 

Criminal  and  defective  classes,  study  of 

Criminal  aristocracy,  or  the  Mafia 85-88 

Criminal  must  be  studied  directly * 77,  82 

Criminal  neglect 79 

Criminal  suggestion 88-93 

Criminals  not  so  abnormal 81 

Criminology  and  practical  sociology 79 

163 


164  INDEX. 

Page. 

Criminology,  divisions  of 76 

Criminology,  instruction  in 81 

Criticisms  of  new  lines  of  work 11 

Deceitfulness  of  criminal 84 

Disease,  and  physical  development  in  college  women 30-32 

Dreams  and  illusions 74 

Drunkenness  and  climate . 103 

Dynamometer .' 25 

Education  and  crime 93-100 

Education  and  hypnotism 61 

Education  and  social  pathology 103 

Emotion  and  aboulia 58 

Emotion  and  suggestion 58 

Emotion,  measurements  of 83 

Estimating,  power  of 75 

Ethics 79 

Fear  in  children . 19 

Fire  traps  and  criminal  negligence 79 

Freedom  of  will 82 

Germany,  types  of  children  in 41 

Girls  in  private  schools,  measurements  of 37-38 

Graphic  method ' 22 

Growth 71 

Growth  and  sociological  conditions 44 

Hair,  color  of  and  nationality 43 

Hall,  G.Stanley 18 

Hand  grasp,  strength  of 24 

Head,  circumference  of 14 

Heads,  abnormally  shaped 

Hearing,  defects  of 17 

Heat,  sensibility  to 24 

Hereditary  diseases  and  physical  development. 30 

Historical  method 10 

Hypnotism 47-70 

Hypnotism  and  abnormal  children 65 

Hypnotism  and  moral  education 61 

Hypnotism  and  surgical  operations 55-57 

Hypnotism  as  power  of  suggestion 57-62 

Hypnotism,  nervous  trembling,  directly 66 

Hypnotism,  pedagogic 64-70 

Hypnotism,  traumatic '. 54 

Hypnotism  useful  for  abnormal  children 65 

Hypnotized  state,  study  of 62-84 

Ignorance  of  children 

Illusions  and  dreams 74 

Importance  of  first-hand  knowledge 29 

Indorsements  of  societies,  etc 160 

Infectious  diseases  and  physical  development 30 

Insanity  and  alcoholism 101 

Instruction  in  criminology .. 

Instruments  of  precision 22-26 

Knowledge,  importance  of  first-hand '. 29 

Laboratories  in  universities 

Large  numbers,  importance  of,  statistically 7 

Laziness  and  unruliness  of  children 13 

Low  wages  and  criminal  tendencies 79 

Mafia 85-88 

Man  from  scientific  point  of  view 117 

Man,  recent  results  from  study  of 70 

Measurement  blank 6 

Measurements  and  abnormalities 13 

Measurements  of  Chattanooga  children 33-37 

Measurements  of  cranium 23 

Measurements  of  emotion 83 

Measurements  of  girls  in  private  schools 37-39 

Measurements  of  pain 26-28 

Measurements  of  university  students 40 


INDEX.  165 

Page. 

Measurements  of  university  women... .^ 39 

Memory 72 

Memory,  strength  of 19 

Mental  ability  of  children 13 

Moral  education 21 

Moral  education  and  hypnotism 61 

Moral  sense '. . ..  74 

Moral  obtuseness  of  criminal r 84 

Morbid  humanitarianism 80 

Movement 73 

Murder,  case  of 108-117 

Nervous  trembling  and  suggestion,  case  of 66 

Normal  man  should  be  studied 10 

Obsession,  cure  of  by  suggestion 59 

Opposition  to  psycho-physical  research 10 

Pain  as  affected  by  sociological  condition 27 

Pain,  measurements  of 26-28 

Pedagogic  hypnotism 64-70 

Physical  characteristics,  interpretation  of.... 40 

Physical  examination . 17 

Plan  for  the  study  of  man  (introductory) :  Measurement  blank,  further  studies, 

unruly  and  reformatory  children;  large  numbers,  questions  as  to  utility....  5-8 

Plethysmpgraph 83 

Poverty,  influence  on  nutrition 79 

Practical  morality,  teaching  of 95-98 

Prison,  a  laboratory 77 

Prison  discipline : 77 

Psycho-physical  research,  opposition  to 10 

Puberty  and  sensibility  to  pain  in  Chattanooga  children 36 

Puberty,  danger  at  age  of 16 

Punishment  and  crime,  Garofalo's  ideas  on 103-108 

Reading  and  writing 74 

Research,  spirit  of 11 

Results  from  the  study  of  man 70-76 

Right-handedness 16 

Scientific  journals,  opinions  of,  as  to  work 159 

Scientific  method 78 

Senators  and  Representatives  favoring  plan  of  work 159 

Sensatitipn  and  stimulation 74 

Senses,  limitation  of 22 

Sensibility  to  heat 24 

Sensibility  to  locality  on  skin 24 

Sickliness  and  nervousness  of  children 13 

Sight , 71 

Sight,  defects  of _ 17 

Skin 73 

Skin,  sensibility  of  locality  on 24 

Smell  and  taste 73 

Social  pathology  and  education 103 

Societies,  indorsements  of 160 

Society,  classes  of 93-94 

Somnambulism  and  crime 89-90 

Sound 72 

Specialists  writing  letters  favoringwork 161 

Spirit  of  research 11 

Strength  of  hand-grasp 24 

Suggestion  and  emotion 58 

Suggestion  and  nervous  trembling,  case  of 66-70 

Suggestion,  cases  of  cure  of  obsession _..  59 

Suggestion,  power  of 57 

Suggestions  as  to  further  studies 6 

Surgical  operations  and  hypnotism 55 

Taste  and  smell 73 

Teacher,  influence  of 21 

Teaching  of  practical  morality 95-98 

Temperature  spots 24 

Tempple-algometer 26 


166  INDEX. 

Page. 

Temptation  and  poverty 79 

Thermiaesthesiometer 24 

Total  abstinence 102 

Training  for  psycho-physical  laboratory 28-30 

Types  of.  children  in  Germany 41—44 

University  students,  measurements  of 40 

University  women,  measurements  of 39 

Unruly  children 7 

Utility  of  studies,  question  as  to 8 

Vengeance  theory 82 

Volition 74 

War  and  commercialism 12 

Washington  children 76 


VITA   AUCTORIS. 


University  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  A.  B.,  1879  ;  A.  M.,  1883. 

Student  of  Law,  1879-1880. 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  N.Y.  City,  graduated  in  1883. 

Harvard  University,  Post-Graduate  Courses  in  Philoso- 
phy, Metaphysics,  and  Theology,  1883-1885. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  appointed  "  Fellow  in  Psy- 
chology," 1885. 

European  Study,  1885-1888  : 

University  of  Berlin,  Medicine  and  Experimental  Medi- 
cine. 

University  of  Leipzig,  Psycho-Physics  and  Medicine. 

University  of  Paris,  Clinical  and  Experimental  Medicine. 

Universities  of  Zurich  and  Vienna,  Insanity,  Hypnotism, 
and  Criminology. 

Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass.,  Docent  ("advance 
beyond  the  Doctorate  ")  in  Criminology,  1889-1891. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Specialist  in  Educa- 
tion as  related  to  the  Abnormal  and  Weakling 
Classes,  1892. 


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AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


DEC 


30Mar'59DFX 


MAR  16  1959 


LD  21-100m-12,'43  (8796s) 


YC  07299 


,^v  r%  ^^T^-K^n.  '- 

Bft^-S^Pt3^S§ 

vj  o^PS^I  *^v^-  >'>    ^-^'%v^ 

?«3S&a^Aetf. 


108259 


